Friday, March 11, 2011

Judges should not have ego problems:Justice Katju



R.S. SINGH  vs.U.P. MALARIA NIRIKSHAK SANGH & ORS.

Date: 09/03/2011

CORAM :
        HON'BLE MR. JUSTICE MARKANDEY KATJU
        HON'BLE MRS. JUSTICE GYAN SUDHA MISRA

O R D E R:-

Heard learned counsel for the parties.
This appeal has been filed against the impugned
interim orders dated 13th November, 2003 and 18th December,
2003 passed by the High Court of Judicature at Allahabad,
Bench at Lucknow.
We have perused the said orders.
A direction has been given in the said orders that
the Principal Secretary, Finance along with the Principal
Secretary, Medical & Health, U.P. Government shall appear
personally before the High Court on the next date for noncompliance of the judgment of the High Court dated
15.11.1989/13.12.1989.

This Court has been repeatedly observing that the
High Courts ordinarily should not summon the senior
officials of the government and that should only be done in
very rare and exceptional cases when there are compellingcircumstances to do so.
In State of Gujarat vs. Turabali Gulamhussain Hirani, AIR 2008 SC 86, this Court observed:
“6. A large number of cases have come up before
this Court where we find that learned Judges of
various High Courts have been summoning the Chief
Secretary, Secretaries to the government (Central
and State), Director Generals of Police,
Director, CBI or BSF or other senior officials of
the government.
7. There is no doubt that the High Court has
power to summon these officials, but in our
opinion that should be done in very rare and
exceptional cases when there are compelling
circumstances to do so. Such summoning orders
should not be passed lightly or as a routine or
at the drop of a hat.

8. Judges should have modesty and humility. They
should realize that summoning a senior official,
except in some very rare and exceptional
situation, and that too for compelling reasons,
is counter productive and may also involve heavy
expenses and valuable time of the official
concerned.

9. The judiciary must have respect for the
executive and the legislature. Judges should
realize that officials like the Chief Secretary,
Secretary to the government, Commissioners,
District Magistrates, senior police officials
etc. are extremely busy persons who are often
working from morning till night. No doubt, the
ministers lay down the policy, but the actual
implementation of the policy and day to day
running of the government has to be done by the
bureaucrats, and hence the bureaucrats are often
working round the clock. If they are summoned by
the Court they will, of course, appear before the
Court, but then a lot of public money and time
may be unnecessarily wasted. Sometimes High Court
Judges summon high officials in far off places
like Director, CBI or Home Secretary to the
Government of India not realizing that it entailsheavy expenditure like arranging of a BSF
aircraft, coupled with public money and valuable
time which would have been otherwise spent on
public welfare.
10. Hence, frequent, casual and lackadaisical
summoning of high officials by the Court cannot
be appreciated. We are constrained to make these
observations because we are coming across a large
number of cases where such orders summoning of
high officials are being passed by the High
Courts and often it is nothing but for the ego
satisfaction of the learned Judge.

11. We do not mean to say that in no
circumstances and on no occasion should an
official be summoned by the Court. In some
extreme and compelling situation that may be
done, but on such occasions also the senior
official must be given proper respect by the
Court and he should not be humiliated. Such
senior officials need not be made to stand all
the time when the hearing is going on, and they
can be offered a chair by the Court to sit. They
need to stand only when answering or making a
statement in the Court. The senior officials too
have their self-respect, and if the Court gives
them respect they in turn will respect the Court.
Respect begets respect.

12. It sometimes happens that a senior official
may not even know about the order of the High
Court. For example, if the High Court stays the
order of the Collector of suspension of a classIII or class IV employee in a  government
department, and certified copy of that order is
left with the Clerk in the office of the
Collector, it often happens that the Collector is
not even aware of the order as he has gone on
tour and he may come to know about it only after
a few days. In the meantime a contempt of court
notice is issued against him by the Court
summoning him to be personally present in Court.
In our opinion, this should not be readily done,
because there is no reason why the Collector
would not obey the order of the High Court. In
such circumstances, the Court should only request
the government counsel to inform the concerned
Collector about the earlier order of the Courtwhich may not have been brought to the notice of
the Collector concerned, and the High Court can
again list the case after a week or two. Almost
invariably it will be found that as soon as the
Collector comes to know about the stay order of
the High Court, he orders compliance of it.

13. In the present case, we find no occasion or
reason for the learned Judge to summon the Chief
Secretary or the Law Secretary by the impugned
order. If the learned Judge was concerned about
the lack of enough Stenographers in the office of
the Public Prosecutor he could have called the
Advocate General or Govt. Advocate to his chamber
and have asked him to convey the Court’s
displeasure to the government, but where was the
need to summon the Chief Secretary or Law
Secretary ? Hence, we set aside the impugned
interim order dated 11.4.2007 and condone the
delay of 25 days in filing the appeal before the
High Court. The High Court may now proceed to
hear the Criminal Appeal in accordance with law.
The appeal is allowed.”

Following the above decision, this Court in State of
U.P. & Ors.  vs.  Jasvir Singh & Ors, JT 2011(1) SC 446,
observed :
“7. It is a matter of concern that there is
a growing trend among a few Judges of the High
Court to routinely and frequently require the
presence, in court, of senior officers of the
government and local and other authorities,
including officers of the level of Secretaries,
for perceived non-compliance with its suggestions
or to seek insignificant clarifications. The
power of the High Court under Article 226 is no
doubt very wide. It can issue to any person or
authority or government, directions, orders,
writs for enforcement of fundamental rights or
for any other purpose. The High Court has the
power to summon or require the personal presence
of any officer, to assist the court to render
justice or arrive at a proper decision. But there
are well settled norms and procedures forexercise of such power.

8.    This court has repeatedly noticed that
the real power of courts is not in passing
decrees and orders, nor in punishing offenders
and contemnors, nor in summoning the presence of
senior officers, but in the trust, faith and
confidence of the common man in the judiciary.
Such trust and confidence should not be frittered
away by unnecessary and unwarranted show or
exercise of power. Greater the power, greater
should be the responsibility in exercising such
power. The normal procedure in writ petitions is
to hear the parties through their counsel who are
instructed in the matter, and decide them by
examining the
pleadings/affidavit/evidence/documents/material.
Where the court seeks any information about the
compliance with any of its directions, it is
furnished by affidavits or reports supported by
relevant documents. Requiring the presence of the
senior officers of the government in court should
be as a last resort, in rare and exceptional
cases, where such presence is absolutely
necessary, as for example, where it is necessary
to seek assistance in explaining complex policy
or technical issues, which the counsel is not
able to explain properly. The court may also
require personal attendance of the officers,
where it finds that any officer is deliberately
or with ulterior motives withholding any specific
information required by the court which he is
legally bound to provide or has misrepresented or
suppressed the correct position.

9.    Where the State has a definite policy
or taken a specific stand and that has been
clearly explained by way of affidavit, the court
should not attempt to impose a contrary view by
way of suggestions or proposals for settlement.  A
court can of course express its views and issue
directions through its reasoned orders, subject to
limitations in regard to interference in matters
of policy. But it should not, and in fact, it
cannot attempt to impose its views by asking an
unwilling party to settle on the terms suggested
by it. At all events the courts should avoiddirecting the senior officers to be present in
court to settle the grievances of individual
litigants for whom the court may have sympathy.
The court should realize that the state has its
own priorities, policies and compulsions which may
result in a particular stand. Merely because the
court does not like such a stand, it cannot summon
or call the senior officers time and again to
court or issue threatening show cause notices. The
senior officers of the government are in-charge of
the administration of the State, have their own
busy schedules. The court should desist from
calling them for all and sundry matters, as that
would amount to abuse of judicial power. Courts
should guard against such transgressions in the
exercise of power.”……..
                     (emphasis supplied).


We are pained to observe that despite our decision
in State of Gujarat  vs.  Turabali Gulamhussain Hirani
(supra) many High Courts are persisting in summoning
executive officials where it was not absolutely necessary
to summon them.  It is possible that our judgment in the
aforesaid decision has not been brought to the notice of
the Hon’ble Judges in many of the High Courts and it may
also be that the subsequent decision of this Court in State
of U.P.  vs.  Jasvir Singh (supra) has not been brought to
their notice.  Consequently we are coming across many
orders where High Court Judges are summoning executive
officials routinely, casually, and sometimes even at the
drop of a hat.  This is most improper.

We are constrained to make these observations
because we are repeatedly coming across a large number of
cases where such orders summoning high officials are being
passed by the High Courts and often it is only for the ego
satisfaction of the learned Judge.  Judges should not have
any ego problems.  In particular, members of the higher
judiciary (High Court and Supreme Court) should have great
modesty and humility. This is because the higher one moves
in the hierarchy the greater become his powers.  Hence,
unless one has modesty and humility, he may play havoc.
High Court Judges have tremendous powers, but the beauty
lies in not exercising those powers except where absolutely
necessary.  Flaunting these powers unnecessarily only
brings the judiciary into disrepute. Some of the greatest
Judges have been the most modest, e.g., Justice Holmes,
Judge Learned Hand, Justice Brandeis, Justice Cardozo, Lord
Atkins, Lord Denning, Justice Venkatachaliah, etc.


At the same time, we make it clear that we have also
come across cases where orders of the Courts are
deliberately ignored by government officials which is not
proper.  Democracy and the rule of law requires that the
orders of the Courts should be complied with by the
executive authorities promptly and with due diligence.  If
the executive authorities are dissatisfied with a HighCourt order, they may appeal against that order to the
Supreme court but it is not proper to ignore such orders.

In our opinion, if the High Court finds that its
order has not been complied with, it shall first see
whether the order can be complied with without summoning
any official and for that purpose it can ask the Advocate
General, Additional Advocate General  or Chief Standing
Counsel or some other counsel of the State to communicate
to the concerned official that there is some order of the
Court which has not been complied with.

Ordinarily, this
will suffice because we see no reason as to why the
executive authorities will not comply with the orders of
the court.  It is only in some extreme case where the High
Court is convinced that deliberately the order of the court
has been ignored in a spirit of defiance that it may summon
the official to explain why the order of the court has not
been complied with.

The system functions on mutual respect between the
judiciary and the executive.  While the judiciary must
respect the executive, at the same time, the executive must
also respect the judiciary.  If we do not respect each
other, the system will collapse.

In the present case, we are of the opinion that the
High Court was not justified in summoning theaforementioned officials.
Following the decision in Turabali's case(supra) and
Jasvir Singh's case (supra), this appeal is allowed and
consequently the direction of the High Court  summoning
Principal Secretary, Finance along with Principal
Secretary, Medical & health is set aside.  The Contempt
Petition shall be decided on its own merits, in accordance
with law, expeditiously.

A copy of this order will be sent to the Registrar
Generals/Registrars of all the High Courts, who shall
circulate copies to the learned Judges of the High Courts.
The Chief Justices of the High Courts, in particular, shall
bring this judgment to the notice of all Hon'ble Judges of
the Court, with the request that they follow this decision,
in letter and spirit.

A copy of this order will also be sent to the
Cabinet Secretary, Union of India, New Delhi as well as to
all the Chief Secretaries of all States/Union Territories.
.J..........................
[MARKANDEY KATJU]NEW DELHI; ..........................J.
MARCH 09, 2011 [GYAN SUDHA MISRA]

Tuesday, March 8, 2011

Aruna Shanbaug is clearly not brain dead: Passive Euthanasia

IN THE SUPREME COURT OF INDIA

                 CRIMINAL ORIGINAL JURISDICTION

          WRIT PETITION (CRIMINAL) NO. 115 OF 2009


Aruna Ramchandra Shanbaug           ..       Petitioner

          -versus-

Union of India and others           ..      Respondents


                          J U D G M E N T

Markandey Katju, J.

     "Marte hain aarzoo mein marne ki
     Maut aati hai par nahin aati"

                     -- Mirza Ghalib



1.   Heard    Mr.    Shekhar    Naphade,    learned   senior counsel for the petitioner, learned Attorney General
for India for the Union of India Mr. Vahanvati, Mr. T. R. Andhyarujina, learned Senior Counsel, whom we
had appointed as amicus curiae, Mr. Pallav Sisodia, learned senior counsel for the Dean, KEM Hospital,
Mumbai, and Mr. Chinmay Khaldkar, learned counsel for the State of Maharashtra.


2.    Euthanasia is one of the most perplexing issues which the courts and legislatures all over the world
are facing today. This Court,in this case, is facing the same issue, and we feel like a ship in an uncharted sea, seeking some guidance by the light thrown by  the legislations judicial pronouncements of foreign countries, as well as the
submissions of learned counsels before us. The case before us is a writ petition under Article 32 of the
Constitution, and has been filed on behalf of the petitioner Aruna Ramachandra Shanbaug       by    one    Ms.
Pinki      Virani    of    Mumbai,      claiming    to    be     a    next friend.


3.    It    is    stated    in    the   writ   petition        that    the petitioner Aruna Ramachandra Shanbaug was a staff
Nurse      working    in    King    Edward     Memorial        Hospital,
Parel, Mumbai. On the evening of 27th November, 1973
she was attacked by a sweeper in the hospital who
wrapped a dog chain around her neck and yanked back with it. 
He tried to rape her but finding tha she     was     menstruating,                he     sodomized         her.       To
immobilize her during this act he twisted the chain
around her neck. The next day on 28th November, 1973
at 7.45 a.m. a cleaner found her lying on the floor
with blood all over in an unconscious condition. It
is    alleged    that      due     to    strangulation           by    the   dog
chain the supply of oxygen to the brain stopped and
the    brain    got      damaged.        It       is     alleged      that   the
Neurologist         in   the       Hospital         found    that     she    had
plantars' extensor, which indicates damage to the
cortex or some other part of the brain. She also had
brain stem contusion injury with associated cervical
cord    injury.       It      is   alleged          at    page   11    of    the
petition       that      36    years         have      expired     since     the
incident and now Aruna Ramachandra Shanbaug is about
60    years    of     age.     She      is    featherweight and   her
brittle bones could break if her hand or leg are
awkwardly       caught,        even      accidentally, under     her
lighter body. She has stopped menstruating and her
skin   is     now     like    papier         mache'      stretched      over     a
skeleton. She is prone to bed sores. Her wrists are
 twisted inwards. Her teeth had decayed causing her
immense pain. She can only be given mashed food, on
which    she      survives.     It   is    alleged   that   Aruna
Ramachandra Shanbaug is in a persistent negetative
state (p.v.s.) and virtually a dead person and has
no state of awareness, and her brain is virtually
dead. She can neither see, nor hear anything nor can
she express herself or communicate, in any manner
whatsoever. Mashed food is put in her mouth, she is
not able to chew or taste any food. She is not even
aware that food has been put in her mouth. She is
not able to swallow any liquid food, which shows
that the food goes down on its own and not because
of any effort on her part. The process of digestion
goes    on   in    this   way   as   the   mashed    food   passes
through her system. However, Aruna is virtually a
skeleton. Her excreta and the urine is discharged on
the bed itself. Once in a while she is cleaned up
but in a short while again she goes back into the
same sub-human condition.            Judged by any parameter,
Aruna cannot be said to be a living person and it is
only on account of mashed food which is put into 
mouth    that   there         is   a   facade     of     life    which       is
totally devoid of any human element. It is alleged
that there is not the slightest possibility of any
improvement in her condition and her body lies on
the bed in the KEM Hospital, Mumbai like a dead
animal, and this has been the position for the last
36 years. The prayer of the petitioner is that the
respondents be directed to stop feeding Aruna, and
let her die peacefully.

4.     We could have dismissed this petition on the
short     ground        that       under       Article      32    of     the
Constitution       of     India        (unlike       Article     226)    the
petitioner has to prove violation of a fundamental
right,    and   it      has    been     held    by    the     Constitution
Bench    decision       of    this     Court     in    Gian     Kaur     vs.
State of Punjab, 1996(2) SCC 648 (vide paragraphs 22
and 23) that the right to life guaranteed by Article
21 of the Constitution does not include the right to
die.     Hence the petitioner has not shown violation
of any of her fundamental rights.                      However, in view
of the importance of the issues involved we decided
 to go deeper into the merits of the case.


5.     Notice    had    been     issued         by    this       Court       on
16.12.2009 to all the respondents in this petition.
A counter affidavit was earlier filed on behalf of
the    respondent      nos.3   and       4,    the   Mumbai      Municipal
Corporation and the Dean, KEM Hospital by Dr. Amar
Ramaji    Pazare,       Professor        and     Head       in   the     said
hospital, stating in paragraph 6 that Aruna accepts
the food in normal course and responds by facial
expressions. She responds to commands intermittently
by making sounds. She makes sounds when she has to
pass     stool    and    urine      which       the     nursing        staff
identifies       and   attends      to    by    leading      her   to    the
toilet. Thus, there was some variance between the
allegations      in    the   writ    petition         and    the   counter
affidavit of Dr. Pazare.


6.     Since there was some variance in the allegation
in the writ petition and the counter affidavit of
Dr. Pazare, we, by our order dated 24 January, 2011
appointed a team of three very distinguished doctors
 of Mumbai to examine Aruna Shanbaug thoroughly and
submit     a    report      about     her   physical       and      mental
condition.       These three doctors were :

     (1)   Dr. J. V. Divatia, Professor and Head,
           Department of
           Anesthesia, Critical Care and Pain at Tata
           Memorial
           Hospital, Mumbai;

     (2)   Dr. Roop Gursahani, Consultant Neurologist                 at
                P.D.Hinduja, Mumbai; and

     (3)   Dr. Nilesh Shah, Professor and Head,
           Department of Psychiatry at Lokmanya Tilak
           Municipal Corporation
           Medical College and General Hospital.



7.   In pursuance of our order dated                 24th January,
2011, the team of three doctors above mentioned
examined Aruna Shanbuag in KEM Hospital and has
submitted us the following report:
     " Report of Examination of Ms. Aruna Ramachandra Shanbaug
     Jointly prepared and signed by
     1. Dr. J.V. Divatia
     (Professor and Head, Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care
     and Pain, at Tata Memorial Hospital, Mumbai)

     2. Dr. Roop Gursahani
     (Consultant Neurologist at P.D. Hinduja Hospital, Mumbai)

     3. Dr. Nilesh Shah
                                                                   9
(Professor and Head, Department of Psychiatry at Lokmanya
Tilak Municipal Corporation Medical College and General
Hospital).

I. Background

            As per the request of Hon. Justice Katju and Hon.
     Justice Mishra of the Supreme Court of India, Ms. Aruna
     Ramachandra Shanbaug, a 60-year-old female patient was
     examined on 28th January 2011, morning and 3rd February
     2011, in the side-room of ward-4, of the K. E. M. Hospital
     by the team of 3 doctors viz. Dr. J.V. Divatia (Professor
     and Head, Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care and
     Pain at Tata Memorial Hospital, Mumbai), Dr. Roop
     Gursahani (Consultant Neurologist at P.D. Hinduja
     Hospital, Mumbai) and Dr. Nilesh Shah (Professor and
     Head, Department of Psychiatry at Lokmanya Tilak
     Municipal Corporation Medical College and General
     Hospital).

            This committee was set up because the Court found
     some variance between the allegations in the writ petition
     filed by Ms. Pinki Virani on behalf of Aruna Ramchandras
     Shanbaug and the counter affidavit of Dr. Pazare. This
     team of three doctors was appointed to examine Aruna
     Ramachandra Shanbaug thoroughly and give a report to
     the Court about her physical and mental condition

           It was felt by the team of doctors appointed by the
     Supreme Court that longitudinal case history and
     observations of last 37 years along with findings of
     examination will give a better, clear and comprehensive
     picture of the patient's condition.

     This report is based on:

     1. The longitudinal case history and observations obtained
     from the Dean and the medical and nursing staff of K. E.
     M. Hospital,
                                                                     10


     2. Case records (including nursing records) since January
     2010
     3. Findings of the physical, neurological and mental status
     examinations performed by the panel.
     4. Investigations performed during the course of this
     assessment (Blood tests, CT head, Electroencephalogram)

II. Medical history

          Medical history of Ms. Aruna Ramachandra
     Shanbaug was obtained from the Dean, the Principal of the
     School of Nursing and the medical and nursing staff of
     ward-4 who has been looking after her.

           It was learnt from the persons mentioned above that

     1. Ms. Aruna Ramachandra Shanbaug was admitted in the
     hospital after she was assaulted and strangulated by a
     sweeper of the hospital on November 27, 1973.
     2. Though she survived, she never fully recovered from the
     trauma and brain damage resulting from the assault and
     strangulation.
     3. Since last so many years she is in the same bed in the
     side-room of ward-4.
     4. The hospital staff has provided her an excellent nursing
     care since then which included feeding her by mouth,
     bathing her and taking care of her toilet needs. The care
     was of such an exceptional nature that she has not
     developed a single bed-sore or fracture in spite of her bed-
     ridden state since 1973.
     5. According to the history from them, though she is not
     very much aware of herself and her surrounding, she
     somehow recognizes the presence of people around her
     and expresses her like or dislike by making certain types of
     vocal sounds and by waving her hands in certain manners.
     She appears to be happy and smiles when she receives her
     favorite food items like fish and chicken soup. She accepts
     feed which she likes but may spit out food which she
      doesn't like. She was able to take oral feeds till 16th
     September 2010, when she developed a febrile illness,
     probably malaria. After that, her oral intake reduced and a
     feeding tube (Ryle's tube) was passed into her stomach via
     her nose. Since then she receives her major feeds by the
     Ryle's tube, and is only occasionally able to accept the oral
     liquids. Malaria has taken a toll in her physical condition
     but she is gradually recuperating from it.
     6. Occasionally, when there are many people in the room
     she makes vocal sounds indicating distress. She calms
     down when people move out of her room. She also seems
     to enjoy the devotional songs and music which is played in
     her room and it has calming effect on her.

      7. In an annual ritual, each and every batch of nursing
     students is introduced to Ms. Aruna Ramachandra
     Shanbaug, and is told that "She was one of us"; "She was a
     very nice and efficient staff nurse but due to the mishap
     she is in this bed-ridden state".

     8. The entire nursing staff member and other staff members
     have a very compassionate attitude towards Ms. Aruna
     Ramachandra Shanbaug and they all very happily and
     willingly take care of her. They all are very proud of their
     achievement of taking such a good care of their bed-ridden
     colleague and feel very strongly that they want to continue
     to take care of her in the same manner till she succumbs
     naturally. They do not feel that Ms. Aruna Ramachandra
     Shanbaug is living a painful and miserable life.

III. Examination

IIIa. Physical examination

           She was conscious, unable to co-operate and
     appeared to be unaware of her surroundings.

            Her body was lean and thin. She appeared neat and
     clean and lay curled up in the bed with movements of the
     left hand and made sounds, especially when many people
     were present in the room.
                                                                    12



           She was afebrile, pulse rate was 80/min, regular, and
     good volume. Her blood pressure recorded on the nursing
     charts was normal. Respiratory rate was 15/min, regular,
     with no signs of respiratory distress or breathlessness.

          There was no pallor, cyanosis, clubbing or icterus.
     She was edentulous (no teeth).

            Skin appeared to be generally in good condition,
     there were no bed sores, bruises or evidence of old healed
     bed sores. There were no skin signs suggestive of
     nutritional deficiency or dehydration.

           Her wrists had developed severe contractures, and
     were fixed in acute flexion. Both knees had also developed
     contractures (right more than left).

          A nasogastric feeding tube (Ryles tube) was in situ.
     She was wearing diapers.

          Abdominal,     respiratory     and     cardiovascular
     examination was unremarkable.

IIIb. Neurological Examination

            When examined she was conscious with eyes open
     wakefulness but without any apparent awareness (see
     Table 1 for detailed assessment of awareness). From the
     above examination, she has evidence of intact auditory,
     visual, somatic and motor primary neural pathways.
     However no definitive evidence for awareness of auditory,
     visual, somatic and motor stimuli was observed during our
     examinations.

            There was no coherent response to verbal commands
     or to calling her name. She did not turn her head to the
     direction of sounds or voices. When roused she made non-
     specific unintelligible sounds ("uhhh, ahhh") loudly and
     continuously but was generally silent when undisturbed.
                                                                      13


            Menace reflex (blinking in response to hand
     movements in front of eyes) was present in both eyes and
     hemifields but brisker and more consistent on the left.
     Pupillary reaction was normal bilaterally. Fundi could not
     be seen since she closed her eyes tightly when this was
     attempted. At rest she seemed to maintain preferential gaze
     to the left but otherwise gaze was random and undirected
     (roving) though largely conjugate. Facial movements were
     symmetric. Gag reflex (movement of the palate in response
     to insertion of a tongue depressor in the throat) was present
     and she does not pool saliva. She could swallow both
     teaspoonfuls of water as well as a small quantity of mashed
     banana. She licked though not very completely sugar
     smeared on her lips, suggesting some tongue control.

            She had flexion contractures of all limbs and seemed
     to be incapable of turning in bed spontaneously. There was
     what appeared to be minimal voluntary movement with the
     left upper limb (touching her wrist to the eye for instance,
     perhaps as an attempt to rub it). When examined/disturbed,
     she seemed to curl up even further in her flexed foetal
     position. Sensory examination was not possible but she did
     seem to find passive movement painful in all four limbs
     and moaned continuously during the examination. Deep
     tendon reflexes were difficult to elicit elsewhere but were
     present at the ankles. Plantars were withdrawal/extensor.

            Thus neurologically she appears to be in a state of
     intact     consciousness     without     awareness      of
     self/environment. No cognitive or communication abilities
     could be discerned. Visual function if present is severely
     limited. Motor function is grossly impaired with
     quadriparesis.

IIIc. Mental Status Examination

1. Consciousness, General Appearance, Attitude and Behavior :

            Ms. Aruna Ramachandra Shanbaug was resting
     quietly in her bed, apparently listening to the devotional
     music, when we entered the room. Though, her body built
                                                                      14


      is lean, she appeared to be well nourished and there were
      no signs of malnourishment. She appeared neat and clean.
      She has developed contractures at both the wrist joints and
      knee joints and so lied curled up in the bed with minimum
      restricted physical movements.

             She was conscious but appeared to be unaware of
      herself and her surroundings. As soon as she realized the
      presence of some people in her room, she started making
      repetitive vocal sounds and moving her hands. This
      behavior subsided as we left the room. She did not have
      any involuntary movements. She did not demonstrate any
      catatonic, hostile or violent behavior.

            Her eyes were wide open and from her behavior it
      appeared that she could see and hear us, as when one
      loudly called her name, she stopped making vocal sounds
      and hand movements for a while. She was unable to
      maintain sustained eye-to eye contact but when the hand
      was suddenly taken near her eyes, she was able to blink
      well.

             When an attempt was made to feed her by mouth,
      she accepted a spoonful of water, some sugar and mashed
      banana. She also licked the sugar and banana paste
      sticking on her upper lips and swallowed it. Thus, at times
      she could cooperate when fed.

2. Mood and affect :

             It was difficult to assess her mood as she was unable
      to communicate or express her feelings. She appeared to
      calm down when she was touched or caressed gently. She
      did not cry or laugh or expressed any other emotions
      verbally or non-verbally during the examination period.
      When not disturbed and observed quietly from a distance,
      she did not appear to be in severe pain or misery. Only
      when many people enter her room, she appears to get a bit
      disturbed about it.
                                                                       15




3. Speech and thoughts :

             She could make repeated vocal sounds but she could
      not utter or repeat any comprehensible words or follow and
      respond to any of the simple commands (such as "show me
      your tongue"). The only way she expressed herself was by
      making some sounds. She appeared to have minimal
      language comprehension or expression.

4. Perception :

            She did not appear to be having any perceptual
      abnormality like hallucinations or illusions from her
      behavior.

5. Orientation, memory and intellectual capacity :

            Formal assessment of orientation in time, place and
      person, memory of immediate, recent and remote events
      and her intellectual capacity could not be carried out.

6. Insight :

             As she does not appear to be fully aware of herself
      and her surroundings, she is unlikely to have any insight
      into her illness.

IV. Reports of Investigations

      IVa. CT Scan Head (Plain)

             This is contaminated by movement artefacts. It
      shows generalized prominence of supratentorial sulci and
      ventricles suggestive of generalized cerebral atrophy.
      Brainstem and cerebellum seem normal. Ischemic foci are
      seen in left centrum semi-ovale and right external capsule.
      In addition a small left parieto-occipital cortical lesion is
      also seen and is probably ischemic.
                                                                     16


     IVb. EEG

           The dominant feature is a moderately rhythmic alpha
     frequency at 8-10 Hz and 20-70 microvolts which is
     widely distributed and is equally prominent both anteriorly
     and posteriorly. It is not responsive to eye-opening as seen
     on the video. Beta at 18-25 Hz is also seen diffusely but
     more prominently anteriorly. No focal or paroxysmal
     abnormalities were noted

     IVc. Blood

           Reports of the hemoglobin, white cell count, liver
     function tests, renal function tests, electrolytes, thyroid
     function, Vitamin B12 and 1,25 dihydroxy Vit D3 levels
     are unremarkable. (Detailed report from KEM hospital
     attached.)

V. Diagnostic impression

            1) From the longitudinal case history and
     examination it appears that Ms. Aruna Ramachandra
     Shanbaug has developed non-progressive but irreversible
     brain damage secondary to hypoxic-ischemic brain injury
     consistent with the known effects of strangulation. Most
     authorities consider a period exceeding 4 weeks in this
     condition, especially when due to hypoxic-ischemic injury
     as confirming irreversibility. In Ms. Aruna's case, this
     period has been as long as 37 years, making her perhaps
     the longest survivor in this situation.

            2) She meets most of the criteria for being in a
     permanent vegetative state (PVS). PVS is defined as a
     clinical condition of unawareness (Table 1) of self and
     environment in which the patient breathes spontaneously,
     has a stable circulation and shows cycles of eye closure
     and opening which may simulate sleep and waking (Table
     2). While she has evidence of intact auditory, visual,
     somatic and motor primary neural pathways, no definitive
     evidence for awareness of auditory, visual, somatic and
     motor stimuli was observed during our examinations.
                                                                                                               17



         VI. Prognosis

                          Her dementia has not progressed and has remained
                   stable for last many years and it is likely to remain same
                   over next many years. At present there is no treatment
                   available for the brain damage she has sustained.
VII. Appendix
VII a. Table 1. CLINICAL ASSESSMENT TO ESTABLISH UNAWARENESS
                              STIMULUS
(Wade DT, Johnston C. British Med                 RESPONSE
Journal 1999; 319:841-844) DOMAIN
OBSERVED
AUDITORY AWARENESS                   Sudden loud noise (clap)                Startle present, ceases other movements
Meaningful noise (rattled steel tumbler and spoon, filmNon-specific head and body movements
                                                           songs
of 1970s)
Spoken commands ("close your eyes", "lift left hand ": inUnable to obey commands. No specific or reproducible
English, Marathi and Konkani)                            response
VISUAL AWARENESS                     Bright light to eyes                    Pupillary responses present
Large moving object in front of eyes (bright red torch Tracking movements: present but inconsistent and poorly
rattle)                                                  reproducible
Visual threat (fingers suddenly moved toward eyes) Blinks, but more consistent on left than right
Written command (English, Marathi: close your eyes) No response
SOMATIC AWARENESS                    Painful stimuli to limbs (light prick with
                                                                             Withdrawal, maximal in left upper limb
                                     sharp end of tendon hammer)
Painful stimuli to face                                  Distress but no co-ordinated response to remove stimulus
Routine sensory stimuli during care (changing position Generalized non specific response presence but no coordinated
                                                          in bed
and feeding)                                             attempt to assist in process
MOTOR OUTPUT                         Spontaneous                             Non-specific undirected activities. Goal
                                                                             directed ­ lifting left hand to left side of face,
                                                                             apparently to rub her left eye.
Responsive                                               Non-specific undirected without any goal directed activities.

Conclusion:
 From the above examination, she has evidence of intact auditory, visual, somatic and
motor primary neural pathways. However no definitive evidence for awareness of
auditory, visual, somatic and motor stimuli was observed during our examinations.

VIIb. Table 2. Application of Criteria for Vegetative State

(Bernat JL. Neurology clinical Practice 2010; 75 (suppl. 1):
                                                     Examination findings : whether she meets Criteria
S33-S38) Criteria                                    (Yes /No / Probably)
Unaware of self and environment                  Yes, Unaware
No interaction with others                       Yes, no interaction
No sustained, reproducible or purposeful voluntary no sustained, reproducible or purposeful
                                                 Yes,
behavioural response to visual, auditory, tactilebehavioural response, but :
                                                  or
noxious stimuli                                  1. Resisted examination of fundus
                                                 2. Licked sugar off lips

No language comprehension or expression                  Yes, no comprehension
No blink to visual threat                                Blinks, but more consistent on left than right
                                                                                            18


Present sleep wake cycles                   Yes (according to nurses)
Preserved autonomic and hypothalamic function
                                            Yes
Preserved cranial nerve reflexes            Yes
Bowel and bladder incontinence              Yes


VIII. References
1. Multi-Society Task Force on PVS. Medical aspects of the persistent vegetative state. N Engl
J Med 1994; 330: 1499-508
2. Wade DT, Johnston C. The permanent vegetative state: practical guidance on diagnosis and
management. Brit Med J 1999; 319:841­4
3. Giacino JT, Ashwal S, Childs N, et al. The minimally conscious state : Definition and
diagnostic criteria. Neurology 2002;58:349­353
4. Bernat JL. Current controversies in states of chronic unconsciousness. Neurology
2010;75;S33"


8. On 18th February, 2011, we then passed the following
order :

           "In the above case Dr. J.V. Divatia on
       17.02.2011 handed over the report of the
       team of three doctors whom we had appointed
       by our order dated 24th January, 2011. He has
       also handed over a CD in this connection.
       Let the report as well as the CD form part
       of the record.

           On   mentioning,  the    case   has  been
       adjourned to be listed on 2 nd March, 2011 at

       the request of learned Attorney General of
       India, Mr. T.R. Andhyarujina, learned Senior
       Advocate, whom we have appointed as amicus
       curiae in the case as well as Mr. Shekhar
       Naphade, learned Senior Advocate for the
       petitioner.

           We request the doctors whom we had
       appointed viz., Dr. J.V. Divatia, Dr. Roop
       Gurshani and     Dr. Nilesh Shah to appear
       before us on 2nd March, 2011 at 10.30 A.M. in
       the Court, since it is quite possible that
       we may like to ask them questions about the
                                                19


report which they have submitted, and in
general about their views in connection with
euthanasia.

    On perusal of the report of the
committee of doctors to us we have noted
that there are many technical terms which
have been used therein which a non-medical
man would find it difficult to understand.
We, therefore, request the doctors to submit
a supplementary report by the next date of
hearing (by e-mailing copy of the same two
days before the next date of hearing) in
which the meaning of these technical terms
in the report is also explained.

    The Central Government is directed to
arrange for the air travel expenses of all
the three doctors as well as their stay in a
suitable accommodation at Delhi and also to
provide them necessary conveyance and other
facilities they require, so that they can
appear before us on 02.03.2011.

    An honorarium may also be given to the
doctors, if they so desire, which may be
arranged mutually with the learned Attorney
General.

    The   Dean  of   King   Edward  Memorial
Hospital as well as Ms. Pinky Virani (who
claims to be the next friend of the
petitioner) are directed to intimate the
brother(s)/sister(s)    or    other    close
relatives of    the petitioner that the case
will be listed on 2nd March, 2011 in the
Supreme Court and they can put forward their
views before the Court, if they so desire.
Learned counsel for the petitioner and the
Registry of this Court shall communicate a
copy of this Order forthwith to the Dean,
KEM Hospital.    The Dean, KEM Hospital is
requested to file an affidavit stating his
                                                                               20


      views regarding the prayer in this writ
      petition, and also the condition of the
      petitioner.

          Copy of this Order shall be given
      forthwith to learned Attorney General of
      India,   Mr.   Shekhar   Naphade   and  Mr.
      Andhyarujina, learned Senior Advocates.

          Let the matter be listed as the first
      item on 2nd March, 2011".



9.    On 2.3.2011, the matter was listed again before
us    and     we      first    saw      the     screening        of     the        CD
submitted by the team of doctors along with their
report.       We had arranged for the screening of the CD
in the Courtroom, so that all present in Court could
see the condition of Aruna Shanbaug.                          For doing so,
we have relied on the precedent of the Nuremburg
trials      in     which      a     screening        was      done      in    the
Courtroom of some of the Nazi atrocities during the
Second World War.             We have heard learned counsel for
the    parties        in    great    detail.          The    three      doctors
nominated        by    us    are    also      present       in   Court.            As
requested        by    us,     the      doctors       team       submitted          a
supplementary report before us which states :
Supplement To The Report Of The Medical Examination Of Aruna Ramchandra Shanbaug
                                                          21
ointly prepared and signed by

. Dr. J.V. Divatia
(Professor and Head, Department of Anesthesia, Critical Care
and Pain, at Tata Memorial Hospital, Mumbai)

2. Dr. Roop Gursahani
(Consultant Neurologist at P.D. Hinduja Hospital, Mumbai)

3. Dr. Nilesh Shah
(Professor and Head, Department of Psychiatry at Lokmanya Tilak
Municipal Corporation Medical College and General Hospital).

Mumbai
February 26, 2011



INDEX
Introduction 3
Terminology 4
Glossary of Technical terms 7
Opinion 11 3

Introduction

This document is a supplement to the Report of Examination of
Ms. Aruna Ramachandra Shanbaug, dated February 14, 2011.

On perusal of the report, the Hon. Court observed that there
were many technical terms which a non-medical man would find it
difficult to understand, and requested us to submit a
supplementary report in which the meaning of these technical
terms in the report is also explained.

We have therefore prepared this Supplement to include a
glossary of technical terms used in the earlier Report, and
also to clarify some of the terminology related to brain
damage. Finally, we have given our opinion in the case of Aruna
Shanbaug.


Terminology

The words coma, brain death and vegetative state are often used
in common language to describe severe brain damage. However, in
medical terminology, these terms have specific meaning and
significance.


Brain death
                                                            22


A state of prolonged irreversible cessation of all brain
activity, including lower brain stem function with the complete
absence of voluntary movements, responses to stimuli, brain
stem reflexes, and spontaneous respirations.

Explanation: This is the most severe form of brain damage. The
patient is unconscious, completely unresponsive, has no reflex
activity from centres in the brain, and has no breathing
efforts on his own. However the heart is beating. This patient
can only be maintained alive by advanced life support
(breathing machine or ventilator, drugs to maintain blood
pressure, etc). These patients can be legally declared dead
(`brain dead') to allow their organs to be taken for donation.

Aruna Shanbaug is clearly not brain dead.


Coma

Patients in coma have complete failure of the arousal system
with no spontaneous eye opening and are unable to be awakened
by application of vigorous sensory stimulation.

Explanation: These patients are unconscious. They cannot be
awakened even by application of a painful stimulus. They have
normal heart beat and breathing, and do not require advanced
life support to preserve life.

Aruna Shanbaug is clearly not in Coma.

Vegetative State (VS)

The complete absence of behavioral evidence for self or
environmental awareness. There is preserved capacity for
spontaneous or stimulus-induced arousal, evidenced by sleep­
wake cycles. .i.e. patients are awake, but have no awareness.

Explanation: Patients appear awake. They have normal heart beat
and breathing, and do not require advanced life support to
preserve life. They cannot produce a purposeful, co-ordinated,
voluntary response in a sustained manner, although they may
have primitive reflexive responses to light, sound, touch or
pain. They cannot understand, communicate, speak, or have
emotions. They are unaware of self and environment and have no
interaction with others. They cannot voluntarily control
passing of urine or stools. They sleep and awaken. As the
centres in the brain controlling the heart and breathing are
intact, there is no threat to life, and patients can survive
for many years with expert nursing care. The following
behaviours may be seen in the vegetative state :
                                                                 23

Sleep-wake cycles with eyes closed, then open
Patient breathes on her own
Spontaneous blinking and roving eye movements
Produce sounds but no words
Brief, unsustained visual pursuit (following an object with her
eyes)
Grimacing to pain, changing facial expressions
Yawning; chewing jaw movements
Swallowing of her own spit
Nonpurposeful limb movements; arching of back
Reflex withdrawal from painful stimuli
Brief movements of head or eyes toward          sound   or   movement
without apparent localization or fixation
Startles with a loud sound

Almost all of these features consistent with the diagnosis of
permanent vegetative state were present during the medical
examination of Aruna Shanbaug.


Minimally Conscious State

Some patients with severe alteration in consciousness have
neurologic findings that do not meet criteria for VS. These
patients demonstrate some behavioral evidence of conscious
awareness but remain unable to reproduce this behavior
consistently. This condition is referred to here as       the
minimally conscious state (MCS). MCS is distinguished from VS
by the partial preservation of conscious awareness.

To make the diagnosis of MCS, limited but clearly discernible
evidence   of   self  or   environmental awareness  must   be
demonstrated on a reproducible or sustained basis by one or
more of the following behaviors:

· Following simple commands.
· Gestural or verbal yes/no responses (regardless of accuracy).
· Intelligible sounds
· Purposeful behavior,     including movements    or emotional
behaviors (smiling, crying) that occur in relation to relevant
environmental stimuli and are not due to reflexive activity.
Some examples of qualifying purposeful behavior include:

­ appropriate smiling or crying in response to the linguistic
                                                                 24

or visual content of emotional but not to neutral topics or
stimuli

­ vocalizations or gestures that occur in direct response to
the linguistic content of questions

­ reaching for objects that demonstrates a clear relationship
between object location and direction of reach

­ touching or holding objects in a manner that accommodates the
size and shape of the object

­ pursuit eye movement or sustained fixation that occurs in
direct response to moving or salient stimuli

None of the above behaviours suggestive of a Minimally
Conscious State were observed during the examination of Aruna
Shanbaug.


GLOSSARY OF TECHNICAL TERMS USED IN THE MAIN REPORT
(In Alphabetical order) Term in text Meaning
Affect                               Feeling conveyed though
                                     expressions and behavior
Afebrile                             No fever
Auditory                             Related to hearing
Bedsore                              A painful wound on the body
                                     caused by having to lie in bed
                                     for a long time
Bilaterally                          On both sides (right and left)
Bruise                               An injury or mark where the
                                     skin has not been broken but
                                     is darker in colour, often as
                                     a result of being hit by
                                     something
Catatonic                            Describes someone who is stiff
                                     and not moving or reacting, as
                                     if dead
Cerebral atrophy                     Shrinking of the globe
                                     (cortex) of the brain
Clubbing                             Bulging or prominence of the
                                     nailbed, making base of the
                                     nails look thick. This is
                                     often due to longstanding
                                     infection inside the lungs.
Cognitive                            Related to ability to
                                     understand and process
                                     information in the brain
Conjugate                            Synchronised movement (of the
                                     eyeball)
                                                                             25

Conscious                       Awake with eyes open. By
                                itself the term conscious does
                                not convey any information
                                about awareness of self and
                                surroundings, or the ability
                                to understand, communicate,
                                have emotions, etc.
Contractures                    Muscles or tendons that have
                                become shortened and taut over
                                a period of time. This causes
                                deformity and restriction of
                                movements.
CT Scan                         A specialized X-ray test where
                                images of the brain (or other
                                part of the body) are obtained
                                in cross-section at different
                                levels. This allows clear
                                visualization of different
                                parts of the brain
Cyanosis                        Bluish discoloration of the nails, lips or skin.
                                It may be due to low levels of oxygen in the
                                blood
Deep tendon reflexes            Reflex response of the fleshy part of certain
                                muscles when its tendon is hit lightly with an
                                examination hammer
Dementia                        Disorder in which there is a cognitive defect,
                                i.e. the patient is unable to understand and
                                process information in the brain
Electroencephalography, (EEG)   Recording of the electrical activity of the
                                brain
Febrile illness                 Illness with fever
Fracture                        A crack or a break in bones
Fundi                           Plural of fundus. Fundus of the eye is the
                                interior surface of the eye, opposite the lens.
                                It is examined with an instrument called the
                                ophthalmoscope
Gag reflex                      Movement of the palate in response to
                                insertion of a tongue depressor in the throat
Hallucinations                  Perception in the absence of stimuli. (e.g.
                                hearing voices which are not there or which
                                are inaudible to others)
Hemifields                      Right or left part of the field of vision
Hypoxic                         Related to reduced oxygen levels in the
                                blood
Icterus                         Yellowish discoloration of the skin and
                                eyeballs. This is commonly known as
                                jaundice, and may be caused by liver disease
Illusions                       Misperception of stimuli (seeing a rope as a
                                snake)
Immediate memory                Memory of events which have occurred just
                                a few minutes ago
                                                                               26


Insight                             Person's understanding of his or her own
                                    illness
Intellectual capacity               Ability to solve problems. The ability to
                                    learn, understand and make judgments or
                                    have opinions that are based on reason
Involuntary movements               Automatic movements over which patient
                                    has no control
Ischemic                            Related to restriction or cutting off of the
                                    blood flow to any part of the body
Malnourishment                      Weak and in bad health because of having
                                    too little food or too little of the types of
                                    food necessary for good health
Menace reflex                       Blinking in response to hand movements in
                                    front of eyes
Mood                                The way one feels at a particular time
Motor                               Related to movement
Movement artefacts                  Disturbance in the image seen in the CT scan
                                    due to patient movement
Oral feed                           Food given through mouth
Orientation                         Awareness about the time, place and person
Pallor                              Pale appearance of the skin. Usually this is
                                    due to a low red blood cell count or low
                                    haemoglobin level in the blood.
Passive movement                    Movement of a limb or part of the body done
                                    by the doctor without any effort by the
                                    patient
Perception                          Sensory experiences (such as seeing, hearing
                                    etc.)
Perceptual abnormalities            Abnormal sensory experiences, e.g, seeing
                                    things that do not exist, hearing sounds when
                                    there are none
Plantars                            Reflex response of the toes when a sharp
                                    painful stimulus is applied to the sole of the
                                    foot. The normal response is curling
                                    downwards of the toes.
Plantars were withdrawal/extensor   When a painful stimulus was applied to the
                                    sole of the foot the toes spread out and there
                                    was reflex movement of the leg (withdrawal)
                                    or upward curling of the great toe and other
                                    toes (extensor). This is an abnormal response
                                    indicating damage in the pathway in the
                                    brain or to the area in the brain controlling
                                    function of the legs.
Primary neural pathways             Course of the nerves from a part of the body
                                    to the area in the brain responsible for the
                                    function of that part
Pupillary reaction                  The pupillary light reflex controls the
                                    diameter of the pupil, in response to the
                                    intensity of light. Greater intensity light
                                                                                             27


                                                  causes the pupil to become smaller (allowing
                                                  less light in), whereas

Opinion

In our view, the issues in this case (and other similar cases) are:

1. In a person who is in a permanent vegetative state (PVS), should withholding or withdrawal
of life sustaining therapies (many authorities would include placement of an artificial feeding
tube as a life sustaining intervention) be permissible or `not unlawful' ?
2. If the patient has previously expressed a wish not to have life-sustaining treatments in case of
futile care or a PVS, should his / her wishes be respected when the situation arises?
3. In case a person has not previously expressed such a wish, if his family or next of kin makes
a request to withhold or withdraw futile life-sustaining treatments, should their wishes be
respected?
4. Aruna Shanbaug has been abandoned by her family and is being looked after for the last 37
years by the staff of KEM Hospital. Who should take decisions on her behalf?

Questions such as these come up at times in the course of medical practice. We realize that
answers to these questions are difficult, and involve several ethical, legal and social issues. Our
opinion is based on medical facts and on the principles of medical ethics. We hope that the
Honourable Court will provide guidance and clarity in this matter.

Two of the cardinal principles of medical ethics are Patient Autonomy and Beneficiance.

1. Autonomy means the right to self-determination, where the informed patient has a right to
choose the manner of his treatment. To be autonomous the patient should be competent to
make decisions and choices. In the event that he is incompetent to make choices, his wishes
expressed in advance in the form of a Living Will, OR the wishes of surrogates acting on his
behalf ('substituted judgment') are to be respected.

The surrogate is expected to represent what the patient may have decided had he / she been
competent, or to act in the patient's best interest. It is expected that a surrogate acting in the
patient's best interest follows a course of action because it is best for the patient, and is not
influenced by personal convictions, motives or other considerations.

2. Beneficence is acting in what is (or judged to be) in patient's best interest. Acting in the
patient's best interest means following a course of action that is best for the patient, and is not
influenced by personal convictions, motives or other considerations. In some cases, the doctor's
expanded goals may include allowing the natural dying process (neither hastening nor delaying
death, but `letting nature take its course'), thus avoiding or reducing the sufferings of the
patient and his family, and providing emotional support. This is not to be confused with
euthanasia, which involves the doctor's deliberate and intentional act through administering a
lethal injection to end the life of the patient.
                                                                                              28
In the present case under consideration:-
1. We have no indication of Aruna Shanbaug's views or wishes with respect to life-sustaining
treatments for a permanent vegetative state.
2. Any decision regarding her treatment will have to be taken by a surrogate
3. The staff of the KEM hospital have looked after her for 37 years, after she was abandoned by
her family. We believe that the Dean of the KEM Hospital (representing the staff of hospital) is
an appropriate surrogate.
4. If the doctors treating Aruna Shanbaug and the Dean of the KEM Hospital, together acting in
the best interest of the patient, feel that life sustaining treatments should continue, their
decision should be respected.
5. If the doctors treating Aruna Shanbaug and the Dean of the KEM Hospital, together acting in
the best interest of the patient, feel that withholding or withdrawing life-sustaining treatments is
the appropriate course of action, they should be allowed to do so, and their actions should not
be considered unlawful.



10.       To complete the narration of facts and before
we come to the legal issues involved, we may mention
that Dr. Sanjay Oak, Dean KEM Hospital Mumbai has
issued a statement on 24.1.2011 opposing euthanasia
for the petitioner :-

            "She means a lot to KEM hospital. She
        is on liquid diet and loves listening to
        music. We have never subjected her to
        intravenous food or fed her via a tube. All
        these years, she hasn't had even one
        bedsore. When those looking after her do not
        have a problem, I don't understand why a
        third party who has nothing to do with her
        [Pinky Virani who has moved the apex court
        to seek euthanasia for Shanbaug] needs to
        worry," added Dr Oak, who, when he took over
        as dean of KEM hospital in 2008, visited her
                                                       29


    first to take her blessings. "I call on her
    whenever I get time. I am there whenever she
    has dysentery or any another problem. She is
    very much alive and we have faith in the
    judiciary," said Dr Oak."



11. Dr.   Sanjay   Oak   has   subsequently   filed    an

affidavit in this Court which states :

        "a) Smt. Aruna Ramchandra Shanbaug has
    been admitted in a single room in Ward No.4
    which is a ward of general internal medicine
    patients and she has been there for last 37
    years.   She is looked after entirely by
    doctors, nurses and para-medical staff of
    KEM Hospital. She has been our staff nurse
    and the unfortunate tragic incidence has
    happened with her in KEM Hospital and I must
    put on record that the entire medical,
    administrative, nursing and para-medical
    staff is extremely attached to her and
    consider her as one of us.      Her relatives
    and a gentleman (her fiancee) used to visit
    her in the initial period of her illness but
    subsequently she has been left to the care
    of KEM staff. I visit her frequently and my
    last visit to her was on 22nd February, 2011.
    I give my observations as a Clinician about
    Smt. Aruna Shanbaug as under :

        b) It would be incorrect to say that
    Smt. Aruna Shanbaug is an appropriate case
    for Coma.   It appears that for a crucial,
    critical period her brain was deprived of
    Oxygen supply and this has resulted in her
    present state similar to that of Cerebral
    Palsy in the newborn child.       It is a
    condition where brain looses it's co-
    ordinatory,  sensory  as   well  as  motor
    functions and this includes loss of speech
                                                     30


and perception.      This has resulted into a
state which in a layman's words "Aruna lives
in her own world for last 37 years". She is
lying in a bed in a single room for 33
years.    She has not been able to stand or
walk, nor have we attempted to do that of
late because we fear that she is fragile and
would break her bones if she falls.           Her
extremities     and   fingers    have   developed
contractures and subsequent to non-use;
there is wasting of her body muscles.         Her
eyes are open and she blinks frequently;
however, these movements are not pertaining
to a specific purpose or as a response to a
question.     At times she is quiet and at
times she shouts or shrieks.          However, I
must say that her shouts and shrieks are
completely oblivious to anybody's presence
in her room. It is not true that she shouts
after seeing a man.        I do not think Aruna
can distinguish between a man and a woman,
nor   can    she    even    distinguish   between
ordinate and inordinate object.          We play
devotional     songs     rendered    by   Sadguru
Wamanrao Pai continuously in her room and
she lies down on her bed listening to them.
She expresses her displeasure by grimaces
and shouts if the tape recorder is switched
off. All these years she was never fed by
tube and whenever a nurse used to take food
to her lips, she used to swallow it. It is
only since September 2010 she developed
Malaria and her oral intake dropped.           In
order to take care of her calorie make need,
nurses cadre resorted to naso-gastric tube
feed and now she is used to NG feeding.
However, if small morsels are held near her
lips, Aruna accepts them gladly. It appears
that she relishes fish and occasionally
smiles when she is given non-vegetarian
food.    However, I am honest in admitting
that her smiles are not purposeful and it
would be improper to interpret them as a
                                                31


signal of gratification.     I must put on
record that in the world history of medicine
there would not be another single case where
such a person is cared and nurtured in bed
for 33 long years and has not developed a
single bed sore. This speaks of volumes of
excellence of nursing care that KEM Nursing
staff has given to her.


    c) This care is given not as a part of
duty but as a part of feeling of oneness.
With every new batch of entrants, the
student nurses are introduced to her and
they are told that she was one of us and she
continues to be one of us and then they
whole-heartedly take care of Aruna.    In my
opinion, this one is finest example of love,
professionalism, dedication and commitment
to one of our professional colleagues who is
ailing and cannot support herself.       Not
once, in this long sojourn of 33 years,
anybody has thought of putting an end to her
so called vegetative existence. There have
been several Deans and Doctors of KEM
Hospital who have cared her in succession.
Right from illustrious Dr. C.K. Deshpande in
whose tenure the incidence happened in 1973,
Dr. G.B. Parulkar, Dr. Smt. Pragna M. Pai,
Dr.   R.J.   Shirahatti,   Dr.   Smt.   N.A.
Kshirsagar, Dr. M.E. Yeolekar and now myself
Dr. Sanjay N. Oak, all of us have visited
her room time and again and have cared for
her and seen her through her ups and downs.
The very idea of withholding food or putting
her to sleep by active medication (mercy
killing) is extremely difficult for anybody
working in Seth GSMC & KEM Hospital to
accept and I sincerely make a plea to the
Learned Counsel and Hon'ble Judges of
Supreme Court of India that this should not
be allowed.   Aruna has probably crossed 60
years of life and would one day meet her
                                                           32


      natural end. The Doctors, Nurses and staff
      of KEM, are determined to take care of her
      till her last breath by natural process.
          d) I do not think it is proper on my
      part to make a comment on the entire case.
      However, as a clinical surgeon for last 3
      decades and as an administrator of the
      hospitals for last 7 years and as a student
      of legal system of India (as I hold
      "Bachelor   of  Law"   degree  from   Mumbai
      University), I feel that entire society has
      not matured enough to accept the execution
      of an Act of Euthanasia or Mercy Killing. I
      fear that this may get misused and our
      monitoring and deterring mechanisms may fail
      to prevent those unfortunate incidences. To
      me any mature society is best judged by it's
      capacity and commitment to take care of it's
      "invalid" ones.   They are the children of
      Lesser God and in fact, developing nation as
      we are, we should move in a positive manner
      of taking care of several unfortunate ones
      who have deficiencies, disabilities and
      deformities."



12. The Hospital staff of KEM Hospital, Mumbai e.g.

the    doctors,    sister-in-charge   ward     no.    4   KEM

hospital   Lenny   Cornielo,   Assistant     Matron   Urmila

Chauhan and others have also issued statements            that

they were looking after Aruna Shanbaug and want her

to live. "Aruna is the bond that unites us", the KEM

Hospital staff has stated.      One retired nurse, Tidi

Makwana, who used to take care of Aruna while in
                                                            33


service, has even offered to continue to take care

of her without any salary and without charging any

traveling expenses.



13. We have referred to these statements because it

is evident that the KEM Hospital staff right from

the Dean, including the present Dean Dr. Sanjay Oak

and down to the staff nurses and para-medical staff

have been looking after Aruna for 38 years day and

night.    What they have done is simply marvelous.

They feed Aruna, wash her, bathe her, cut her nails,

and generally take care of her, and they have been

doing this not on a few occasions but day and night,

year after year.      The whole country must learn the

meaning   of   dedication   and   sacrifice   from   the   KEM

hospital staff.    In 38 years Aruna has not developed

one bed sore.



14. It is thus obvious that the KEM hospital staff
has developed an emotional bonding and attachment to
Aruna Shanbaug, and in a sense they are her real
family today.     Ms. Pinki Virani who claims to be 
next friend of Aruna Shanbaug and has filed this
petition on her behalf is not a relative of Aruna
Shanbaug    nor    can       she    claim    to   have    such     close
emotional    bonding         with    her    as    the   KEM     hospital
staff.      Hence,      we   are     treating     the    KEM    hospital
staff as the next friend of Aruna Shanbaug and we
decline to recognize Ms. Pinki Virani as her next
friend.     No doubt Ms. Pinki Virani has written a
book about Aruna Shanbaug and has visited her a few
times, and we have great respect for her for the
social causes she has espoused, but she cannot claim
to have the extent of attachment or bonding with
Aruna which the KEM hospital staff, which has been
looking after her for years, claims to have.

SUBMISSIONS OF LEARNED COUNSEL FOR THE PARTIES

15. Mr. Shekhar Naphade, learned senior counsel for
the petitioner has relied on the decision of this
Court in Vikram Deo Singh Tomar vs. State of Bihar
1988   (Supp)     SCC    734       (vide   para   2)    where    it   was
oserved by this Court :
  
"We live in an age when this Court has
     demonstrated, while interpreting Article 21
     of the Constitution, that every person is
     entitled to a quality of life consistent
     with his human personality.     The right to
     live with human dignity is the fundamental
     right of every Indian citizen".



16. He has also relied on the decision of this Court
in P. Rathinam vs. Union of India and another (1994)
3 SCC 394 in which a two-Judge bench of this Court
quoted with approval a passage from an article by
Dr. M. Indira and Dr. Alka Dhal in which it was
mentioned :
    "Life is not mere living but living                   in
    health.    Health is not the absence                  of
     illness but a glowing vitality".



17. The     decision     in   Rathinam's   case   (supra)       was,
however, overruled by a Constitution Bench decision
of   this   Court   in    Gian   Kaur   vs.   State   of   Punjab
1996) 2 SCC 648.


18. Mr. Naphade, however, has invited our attention
to paras 24 & 25 of the aforesaid decision 
it was observed :


    "(24) Protagonism of euthanasia on the view that existence in
    persistent vegetative state (PVS) is not a benefit to the patient of
    a terminal illness being unrelated to the principle of 'sanctity of
    life' or the right to live with dignity' is of no assistance to
    determine the scope of Article 21 for deciding whether the
    guarantee of right to life' therein includes the right to die'. The
    right to life' including the right to live with human dignity would
    mean the existence of such a right upto the end of natural life.
    This also includes the right to a dignified life upto the point of
    death including a dignified procedure of death. In other words,
    this may include the right of a dying man to also die with dignity
    when his life is ebbing out. But the 'right to die' with dignity at
    the end of life is not to be confused or equated with the right to
    die' an unnatural death curtailing the natural span of life.


    (25)   A question may arise, in the context of a dying man, who
    is, terminally ill or in a persistent vegetative state that he may be
    permitted to terminate it by a premature extinction of his life in
    those circumstances. This category of cases may fall within the
    ambit of the 'right to die' with dignity as a part of right to live
    with dignity, when death due to termination of natural life is
    certain and imminent and the process of natural death has
    commenced. These are not cases of extinguishing life but only of
    accelerating conclusion of the process of natural death which has
    already commenced. The debate even in such cases to permit
    physician assisted termination of life is inconclusive. It is
    sufficient to reiterate that the argument to support the view of
    permitting termination of life in such cases to reduce the period
    of suffering during the process of certain natural death is not
    available to interpret Article 21 to include therein the right to
    curtail the natural span of life".
                                                                    37




He has particularly emphasized paragraph 25 of the
said   judgment    in    support     of     his   submission       that
Aruna Shanbaug should be allowed to die.


19. We have carefully considered paragraphs 24 and
25 in Gian Kaur's case (supra) and we are of the
opinion that all that has been said therein is that
the view in Rathinam's case (supra) that the right
to life includes the right to die is not correct.
We cannot construe Gian Kaur's case (supra) to mean
anything    beyond      that.        In     fact,     it     has   been
specifically      mentioned     in        paragraph    25     of    the
aforesaid   decision     that     "the     debate     even    in   such
cases to permit physician assisted termination of
life is inconclusive".          Thus it is obvious that no
final view was expressed in the decision in Gian
Kaur's case beyond what we have mentioned above.


20. Mr.    Naphade,     learned    senior      counsel       submitted
that Ms. Pinky Virani is the next friend of Aruna as
 she has written a book on her life called `Aruna's
story' and has been following Aruna's case from 1980
and has done whatever possible and within her means
to help Aruna.        Mr. Naphade has also invited our
attention to the report of the Law Commission of
India, 2006 on `Medical Treatment to Terminally Ill
Patients'.       We     have   perused   the    said     report
carefully.



21. Learned Attorney General appearing for the Union
of   India    after   inviting    our    attention     to   the
relevant case law submitted as under :

   (i) Aruna Ramchandra Shanbaug has the right to
         live in her present state.

     (ii) The state that Aruna Ramchandra Shanbaug is
          presently in does not justify terminating
          her        life        by       withdrawing
          hydration/food/medical support.

     (iii)   The aforesaid acts or series of acts
         and/or such omissions will be cruel, inhuman
         and intolerable.

     (iv) Withdrawing/withholding                  of
          hydration/food/medical support to a patient
          is unknown to Indian law and is contrary to
          law.

     (v) In      case      hydration       or     food       is
                                                                  39


           withdrawn/withheld from Aruna Ramchandra
           Shanbaug, the efforts which have been put in
           by batches after batches of nurses of KEM
           Hospital for the last 37 years will be
           undermined.

       (vi) Besides causing a deep sense of resentment
            in the nursing staff as well as other well
            wishers of Aruna Ramchandra Shanbaug in KEM
            Hospital including the management, such
            acts/omissions will lead to disheartenment
            in them and large scale disillusionment.

       (vii)   In any    event, these   acts/omissions
           cannot be permitted at the instance of Ms.
           Pinky Virani who desires to be the next
           friend of Aruna Ramchandra Shanbaug without
           any locus.



Learned Attorney General stated that the report of

the Law Commission of India on euthanasia has not

been    accepted    by     the    Government      of    India.    He

further submitted that Indian society is emotional

and care-oriented.             We do not send our parents to

old age homes, as it happens in the West.                 He stated

that     there    was     a     great   danger     in    permitting

euthanasia       that    the     relatives   of    a    person   may

conspire with doctors and get him killed to inherit

his property.           He further submitted that tomorrow

there may be a cure to a medical state perceived as
 incurable today.


22. Mr. T. R. Andhyarujina, learned senior counsel
whom   we    had   appointed     as   Amicus     Curiae,    in   his
erudite submissions explained to us the law on the
point.      He submitted that in general in common law
it is the right of every individual to have the
control of his own person free from all restraints
or interferences of others.             Every human being of
adult years and sound mind has a right to determine
what shall be done with his own body.                 In the case
of   medical    treatment,      for   example,    a   surgeon    who
performs an operation without the patient's consent
commits assault or battery.


23. It      follows   as    a   corollary   that      the   patient
possesses the right not to consent i.e. to refuse
treatment.     (In    the   United     States    this   right     is
reinforced by a Constitutional right of privacy).
Ts is known as the principle of self-determination
or informed consent.
 
24. Mr. Andhyarujina submitted that the principle of

self-determination applies when a patient of sound

mind        requires      that        life   support          should     be

discontinued.          The same principle applies where a

patient's consent has been expressed at an earlier

date    before      he      became     unconscious       or    otherwise

incapable of communicating it as by a `living will'

or     by    giving      written       authority    to    doctors        in

anticipation of his incompetent situation.



       Mr. Andhyarujina differed from the view of the

learned Attorney General in that while the latter

opposed      even     passive    euthanasia,       Mr.    Andhyarujina

was    in    favour    of    passive     euthanasia      provided       the

decision to discontinue life support was taken by

responsible medical practitioners.

25. If the doctor acts on such consent there is no

question of the patient committing suicide or of the

doctor having aided or abetted him in doing so.                          It

is simply that the patient, as he is entitled to do,

declines      to    consent      to    treatment    which       might    or

would have the effect of prolonging his life and the
                                                                         42


doctor has in accordance with his duties complied

with the patient's wishes.



26. The troublesome question is what happens when

the patient is in no condition to be able to say

whether or not he consents to discontinuance of the

treatment and has also given no prior indication of

his   wishes    with    regard   to    it     as   in    the   case      of

Aruna.     In    such     a   situation       the       patient    being

incompetent     to     express   his    self-determination              the

approach adopted in some of the American cases is of

"substituted      judgment"       or     the       judgment        of        a

surrogate.       This involves a detailed inquiry into

the patient's views and preferences.                    The surrogate

decision maker has to gather from material facts as

far as possible the decision which the incompetent

patient   would        have   made     if     he    was    competent.

However, such a test is not favoured in English law

in relation to incompetent adults.



27. Absent      any    indication      from    a    patient       who    is

incompetent the test which is adopted by Courts is
                                                                 43


what is in the best interest of the patient whose

life is artificially prolonged by such life support.

This is not a question whether it is in the best

interest of the patient that he should die.                      The

question is whether it is in the best interest of

the patient that his life should be prolonged by the

continuance   of    the   life     support    treatment.        This

opinion    must     be    formed    by   a    responsible       and

competent body of medical persons in charge of the

patient.


28. The withdrawal of life support by the doctors is

in law considered as an omission and not a positive

step to terminate the life.              The latter would be

euthanasia, a criminal offence under the present law

in UK, USA and India.



29. In such a situation, generally the wishes of the

patient's immediate family will be given due weight,

though their views cannot be determinative of the

carrying on of treatment as they cannot dictate to

responsible   and    competent      doctors    what   is   in    the
                                                                               44


best interest of the patient.                    However, experience

shows that in most cases the opinions of the doctors

and the immediate relatives coincide.



30. Whilst         this   Court     has   held      that     there       is    no

right       to   die   (suicide)      under      Article         21    of     the

Constitution and attempt to suicide is a crime vide

Section 309 IPC, the Court has held that the right

to    life       includes     the    right     to     live    with       human

dignity, and in the case of a dying person who is

terminally ill or in a permanent vegetative state he

may    be    permitted        to   terminate     it    by    a    premature

extinction of his life in these circumstances and it

is not a crime vide Gian Kaur's case (supra).



31. Mr. Andhyarujina submitted that the decision to

withdraw         the   life    support    is     taken       in    the      best

interests         of   the    patient     by    a     body    of       medical

persons.          It is not the function of the Court to

evaluate the situation and form an opinion on its

own.    In England for historical reasons the parens

patriae          jurisdiction        over             adult           mentally
                                                                  45


incompetent persons was abolished by statute and the

Court has no power now to give its consent.                  In this

situation, the Court only gives a declaration that

the proposed omission by doctors is not unlawful.



32. In U.K., the Mental Capacity Act, 2005 now makes

provision relating to persons who lack capacity and

to determine what is in their best interests and the

power   to   make   declaration   by     a    special    Court    of

Protection as to the lawfulness of any act done in

relation to a patient.



33. Mr. Andhyarujina submitted that the withdrawal

of nutrition by stopping essential food by means of

nasogastric tube is not the same as unplugging a

ventilator which artificially breathes air into the

lungs of a patient incapable of breathing resulting

in   instant   death.     In   case    of    discontinuance       of

artificial     feeding   the   patient       will   as   a    result

starve to death with all the sufferings and pain and

distress associated with such starving.                  This is a

very relevant consideration in a PVS patient like
                                                                        46


Aruna who is not totally unconscious and has sensory

conditions     of   pain      etc.       unlike     Antony     Bland       in

Airedale vs. Director MHD (1993) 2 WLR 316 who was

totally unconscious.            Would the doctor be able to

avoid   such   pain     or    distress       by    use   of    sedatives

etc.?     In such a condition would it not be more

appropriate to continue with the nasogastric feeding

but not take any other active steps to combat any

other illness which she may contract and which may

lead to her death?



34. Mr.   Andhyarujina         further       submitted        that    in    a

situation like that of Aruna, it is also necessary

to   recognize      the      deep    agony    of      nurses     of    the

hospital who have with deep care looked after her

for over 37 years and who may not appreciate the

withdrawal of the life support.                   It may be necessary

that their views should be considered by the Court

in some appropriate way.



35. Mr.    Andhyarujina,            in      the     course      of     his

submission     stated      that      some    Courts      in    USA    have
                                                                   47


observed that the view of a surrogate may be taken

to    be   the    view   of    the    incompetent       patient    for

deciding      whether     to   withdraw    the     life     support,

though the House of Lords in Airedale's case has not

accepted this.       He submitted that relatives of Aruna

do not seem to have cared for her and it is only the

nursing     staff        and    medical    attendants       of    KEM

hospital who have looked after her for 37 years.                    He

has    also      submitted     that    though     the     humanistic

intention of Ms. Pinky Virani cannot be doubted, it

is the opinion of the attending doctors and nursing

staff which is more relevant in this case as they

have looked after her for so many years.


36. Mr. Pallav Shishodia, learned senior counsel for

the Dean, KEM hospital, Mumbai submitted that Ms.

Pinky Virani has no locus standi                in the matter and

it is only the KEM hospital staff which could have

filed such a writ petition.



37. We have also heard learned counsel for the State

of    Maharashtra,       Mr.   Chinmoy    Khaldkar       and     other
                                                                     48


assisting counsel whose names have been mentioned in

this judgment.         They have been of great assistance

to    us    as   we   are    deciding   a    very       sensitive    and

delicate issue which while requiring a humanistic

approach, also requires great case and caution to

prevent misuse.          We were informed that not only the

learned counsel who argued the case before us, but

also the assistants (whose names have been mentioned

in the judgment) have done research on the subject

for several weeks, and indeed this has made our task

easier      in   deciding     this   case.          They       therefore

deserve our compliment and thanks.



Legal Issues : Active and Passive Euthanasia

38. Coming now to the legal issues in this case, it

may    be   noted     that   euthanasia      is    of    two    types    :

active and passive.            Active euthanasia entails the

use of lethal substances or forces to kill a person

e.g.    a   lethal     injection     given    to    a     person    with

terminal cancer who is in terrible agony.                       Passive

euthanasia entails withholding of medical treatment
                                                                           49


for     continuance      of     life,       e.g.      withholding          of

antibiotics      where    without      giving      it      a    patient    is

likely to die, or removing the heart lung machine,

from a patient in coma.



39. The general legal position all over the world

seems to be that while active euthanasia is illegal

unless there is legislation permitting it, passive

euthanasia       is     legal        even    without           legislation

provided     certain      conditions         and      safeguards          are

maintained.



40. A     further      categorization           of      euthanasia         is

between     voluntary         euthanasia      and       non      voluntary

euthanasia.           Voluntary       euthanasia        is      where     the

consent    is    taken    from       the    patient,           whereas    non

voluntary       euthanasia       is     where        the       consent     is

unavailable e.g. when the patient is in coma, or is

otherwise unable to give consent.                  While there is no

legal    difficulty      in    the    case   of      the       former,    the

latter     poses      several     problems,          which       we     shall

address.
                                                                       50




ACTIVE EUTHANASIA


41. As already stated above active euthanasia is a

crime all over the world except where permitted by

legislation.        In India active euthanasia is illegal

and a crime under section 302 or at least section

304 IPC.      Physician assisted suicide is a crime

under section 306 IPC (abetment to suicide).



42. Active euthanasia is taking specific steps to

cause   the    patient's        death,    such    as    injecting     the

patient    with     some       lethal    substance,      e.g.       sodium

pentothal which causes a person deep sleep in a few

seconds,      and        the     person        instantaneously         and

painlessly dies in this deep sleep.



43. A     distinction           is   sometimes         drawn    between

euthanasia      and       physician       assisted       dying,       the

difference      being      in    who     administers      the       lethal

medication.         In    euthanasia,      a    physician      or   third

party administers it, while in physician assisted
                                                                         51


suicide      it    is    the    patient    himself       who     does    it,

though      on     the   advice    of     the     doctor.         In    many

countries/States          the     latter     is    legal       while     the

former is not.


44. The      difference        between     "active"      and     "passive"

euthanasia is that in active euthanasia, something

is done to end the patient's life' while in passive

euthanasia, something is not done that would have

preserved the patient's life.



45. An      important      idea    behind       this    distinction       is

that   in    "passive      euthanasia"       the       doctors    are    not

actively killing anyone; they are simply not saving

him.   While       we    usually    applaud       someone      who     saves

another person's life, we do not normally condemn

someone for failing to do so. If one rushes into a

burning building and carries someone out to safety,

he will probably be called a hero. But if one sees a

burning building and people screaming for help, and

he stands on the sidelines -- whether out of fear

for    his        own    safety,    or      the     belief       that     an
                                                                             52


inexperienced and ill-equipped person like himself

would    only      get   in    the        way    of     the   professional

firefighters, or whatever -- if one does nothing,

few   would      judge   him    for        his    inaction.      One       would

surely not be prosecuted for homicide. (At least,

not unless one started the fire in the first place.)



46. Thus, proponents of euthanasia say that while we

can     debate     whether      active          euthanasia      should        be

legal,      there     can      be     no        debate      about     passive

euthanasia: You cannot prosecute someone for failing

to save a life. Even if you think it would be good

for people to do X, you cannot make it illegal for

people to not do X, or everyone in the country who

did not do X today would have to be arrested.



47.         Some     persons        are    of     the    view       that     the

distinction is not valid.                  They give the example of

the   old     joke    about     the        child      who     says    to    his

teacher, "Do you think it's right to punish someone

for something that he didn't do?" "Why, of course

not," the teacher replies. "Good," the child says,
                                                               53


"because I didn't do my homework."



48. In fact we have many laws that penalize people

for what they did not do.            A person cannot simply

decide not to pay his income taxes, or not bother to

send    his/her    children    to    school   (where    the   law

requires sending them), or not to obey a policeman's

order to put down one's gun.

49. However,      we   are    of    the   opinion      that   the

distinction is valid, as has been explained in some

details    by   Lord   Goff   in    Airedale's   case    (infra)

which we shall presently discuss.


LEGISLATION IN SOME COUNTRIES RELATING TO EUTHANASIA
OR PHYSICIAN ASSISTED DEATH


50. Although in the present case we are dealing with

a case related to passive euthanasia, it would be of

some interest to note the legislations in certain

countries permitting active euthanasia.             These are

given below.

       Netherlands:
                                                                       54


Euthanasia in the Netherlands is regulated by

the "Termination of Life on Request and Assisted

Suicide      (Review          Procedures)        Act",      2002.      It

states      that    euthanasia          and     physician-assisted

suicide      are    not       punishable        if    the   attending

physician acts in accordance with the criteria

of    due     care.       These         criteria       concern        the

patient's      request,           the      patient's        suffering

(unbearable         and        hopeless),        the     information

provided      to        the    patient,         the    presence        of

reasonable alternatives, consultation of another

physician and the applied method of ending life.

To    demonstrate             their       compliance,        the      Act

requires physicians to report euthanasia to a

review committee.

The legal debate concerning euthanasia in the

Netherlands took off with the "Postma case" in

1973, concerning a physician who had facilitated

the   death        of    her     mother       following        repeated

explicit     requests          for    euthanasia.           While     the

physician     was       convicted,        the    court's       judgment

set   out    criteria         when    a    doctor      would    not    be
                                                                   55


  required to keep a patient alive contrary to his

  will. This set of criteria was formalized in the

  course of a number of court cases during the

  1980s.

  Termination       of    Life     on   Request     and    Assisted

  Suicide (Review Procedures) Act took effect on

  April    1,     2002.    It     legalizes      euthanasia       and

  physician       assisted       suicide    in     very    specific

  cases,    under       very   specific    circumstances.         The

  law was proposed by Els Borst, the                  minister of

  Health. The procedures codified in the law had

  been a convention of the Dutch medical community

  for over twenty years.

  The law allows a medical review board to suspend

  prosecution of doctors who performed euthanasia

  when     each     of    the      following       conditions      is

  fulfilled:

· the patient's suffering is unbearable with no

  prospect of improvement

· the    patient's       request    for    euthanasia      must    be

  voluntary       and    persist    over    time    (the    request
                                                               56


  cannot be granted when under the influence of

  others, psychological illness, or drugs)

· the    patient    must      be   fully    aware   of   his/her

  condition, prospects and options

· there must be consultation with at least one

  other independent doctor who needs to confirm

  the conditions mentioned above

· the death must be carried out in a medically

  appropriate fashion by the doctor or patient, in

  which case the doctor must be present

· the patient is at least 12 years old (patients

  between     12   and   16    years   of    age    require   the

  consent of their parents)

  The doctor must also report the cause of death

  to the municipal coroner in accordance with the

  relevant provisions of the Burial and Cremation

  Act.    A    regional       review       committee     assesses

  whether a case of termination of life on request

  or assisted suicide complies with the due care

  criteria. Depending on its findings, the case

  will either be closed or, if the conditions are
                                                                 57


  not met, brought to the attention of the Public

  Prosecutor. Finally, the legislation offers an

  explicit     recognition      of    the      validity    of        a

  written declaration of the will of the patient

  regarding euthanasia (a "euthanasia directive").

  Such declarations can be used when a patient is

  in a coma or otherwise unable to state if they

  wish to be euthanized.

  Euthanasia remains a criminal offense in cases

  not meeting the law's specific conditions, with

  the exception of several situations that are not

  subject to the restrictions of the law at all,

  because     they      are   considered       normal     medical

  practice.    These are :

· stopping    or     not   starting    a   medically      useless

  (futile) treatment

· stopping    or     not   starting    a     treatment    at    the

  patient's request

· speeding up death as a side-effect of treatment

  necessary for alleviating serious suffering

  Euthanasia       of   children     under    the   age    of    12
                                                               58


remains technically illegal; however, Dr. Eduard

Verhagen     has        documented    several    cases     and,

together    with      colleagues     and   prosecutors,       has

developed a protocol to be followed in those

cases.   Prosecutors        will     refrain   from    pressing

charges if this Groningen Protocol is followed.



Switzerland:

Switzerland has an unusual position on assisted

suicide:    it     is    legally     permitted   and    can    be

performed        by       non-physicians.              However,

euthanasia    is      illegal,     the   difference     between

assisted suicide and euthanasia being that while

in the former the patient administers the lethal

injection himself, in the latter a doctor or

some other person administers it.

Article 115 of the Swiss penal code, which came

into effect in 1942 (having been approved in

1937), considers assisting suicide a crime if,

and only if, the motive is selfish.                    The code

does not give physicians a special status in
                                                                       59


assisting       suicide;          although,          they    are     most

likely     to    have     access          to     suitable          drugs.

Ethical     guidelines        have        cautioned          physicians

against prescribing deadly drugs.

Switzerland      seems       to    be     the    only       country    in

which the law limits the circumstances in which

assisted        suicide           is      a      crime,         thereby

decriminalising         it        in     other       cases,     without

requiring       the     involvement             of     a     physician.

Consequently,         non-physicians            have       participated

in assisted suicide.                   However, legally, active

euthanasia e.g. administering a lethal injection

by a doctor or some other person to a patient is

illegal in Switzerland (unlike in Holland where

it is legal under certain conditions).

The   Swiss      law     is       unique        because       (1)     the

recipient need not be a Swiss national, and (2)

a physician need not be involved.                          Many persons

from other countries, especially Germany, go to

Switzerland to undergo euthanasia.
                                                               60




Belgium:

Belgium     became    the     second     country    in    Europe

after Netherlands to legalize the practice of

euthanasia in September 2002.

The Belgian law sets out conditions under which

suicide can be practised without giving doctors

a licence to kill.

Patients wishing to end their own lives must be

conscious when the demand is made and repeat

their request for euthanasia. They have to be

under     "constant     and     unbearable        physical     or

psychological pain" resulting from an accident

or incurable illness.

The   law   gives     patients     the    right    to    receive

ongoing     treatment       with    painkillers          --   the

authorities have to pay to ensure that poor or

isolated patients do not ask to die because they

do not have money for such treatment.

Unlike the Dutch legislation, minors cannot seek

assistance to die.
                                                                  61


In   the    case    of     someone   who       is    not   in    the

terminal     stages      of    illness,    a     third     medical

opinion must be sought.

Every mercy killing case will have to be filed

at a special commission to decide if the doctors

in charge are following the regulations.




U.K.,   Spain,      Austria,     Italy,    Germany,        France,

etc.

In   none   of     these      countries    is       euthanasia    or

physician assisted death legal.                 In January 2011

the French Senate defeated by a 170-142 vote a

bill    seeking      to       legalize    euthanasia.             In

England, in May 2006 a bill allowing physician

assisted suicide, was blocked, and never became

law.



United States of America:

Active Euthanasia is illegal in all states in

U.S.A., but physician assisted dying is legal in
                                                                       62


  the states of Oregon, Washington and Montana.

  As    already    pointed      out       above,    the    difference

  between     euthanasia            and     physician           assisted

  suicide     lies      in    who     administers         the    lethal

  medication.      In    the     former,      the    physician         or

  someone else administers it, while in the latter

  the    patient     himself        does     so,   though        on   the

  advice of the doctor.



  Oregon:

  Oregon was the first state in U.S.A. to legalize

  physician assisted death.

  The Oregon legislature enacted the Oregon Death

  with Dignity Act, in 1997.                Under the Death With

  Dignity    Act,    a       person    who    sought       physician-

  assisted    suicide         would    have    to    meet       certain

  criteria:

· He must be an Oregon resident, at least 18 years

  old, and must have decision making capacity.

· The person must be terminally ill, having six

  months or less to live.
                                                                 63


· The person must make one written and two oral

  requests for medication to end his/her life, the

  written one substantially in the form provided

  in    the   Act,    signed,     dated,    witnessed      by   two

  persons     in     the    presence   of   the    patient      who

  attest      that    the    person    is    capable,       acting

  voluntarily and not being coerced to sign the

  request.      There are stringent qualifications as

  to who may act as a witness.

· The   patient's      decision     must    be    an    `informed'

  one, and the attending physician is obligated to

  provide the patient with information about the

  diagnosis,         prognosis,     potential          risks,   and

  probable consequences of taking the prescribed

  medication, and alternatives, including, but not

  limited to comfort care, hospice care and pain

  control.         Another    physician     must    confirm     the

  diagnosis,         the     patient's      decision        making

  capacity,     and     voluntariness       of   the     patient's

  decisions.

· Counselling has to be provided if the patient is
                                                               64


  suffering from depression or a mental disorder

  which may impact his judgment.

· There has to be a waiting period of 15 days,

  next    of   kin    have     to   be   notified,   and     State

  authorities have to be informed.

· The patient can rescind his decision at any time

  In     response     to   concerns       that   patients     with

  depression may seek to end their lives, the 1999

  amendment provides that the attending physician

  must determine that the patient does not have

  `depression        causing    impaired     judgment'      before

  prescribing the medication.

  Under the law, a person who met all requirements

  could receive a prescription of a barbiturate

  that     would     be    sufficient       to   cause      death.

  However,      the        lethal        injection   must       be

  administered        by     the     patient     himself,      and

  physicians are prohibited from administering it.

  The landmark case to declare that the practice

  of euthanasia by doctors to help their patients

  shall not be taken into cognizance was Gonzalez
                                                        65


vs Oregon decided in 2006.

After   the   Oregon   Law   was    enacted    about   200

persons have had euthanasia in Oregon.



Washington:

Washington was the second state in U.S.A. which

allowed the practice of physician assisted death

in the year 2008 by passing the Washington Death

with Dignity Act, 2008.



Montana:

Montana was the third state (after Oregon and

Washington)    in   U.S.A.     to   legalize    physician

assisted deaths, but this was done by the State

judiciary and not the legislature.            On December

31, 2009, the Montana Supreme Court delivered

its verdict in the case of Baxter v. Montana

permitting     physicians      to    prescribe     lethal

indication.      The   court    held   that    there   was

"nothing in Montana Supreme Court precedent or

Montana statutes indicating that physician aid
                                                                    66


in dying is against public policy."



Other States in U.S.A.:

In no other State in U.S.A. is euthanasia or

physician assisted death legal.                   Michigan banned

euthanasia and assisted suicide in 1993, after

Dr.    Kevorkian     (who       became      known      as    `doctor

death')     began        encouraging        and    assisting        in

suicides.      He    was        convicted     in    1999     for    an

assisted    suicide       displayed      on   television,          his

medical licence cancelled, and he spent 8 years

in jail.



In 1999 the State of Texas enacted the Texas

Futile Care Law which entitles Texas hospitals

and    doctors,     in    some    situations,          to   withdraw

life    support      measures,        such        as    mechanical

respiration,      from     terminally        ill    patient     when

such     treatment         is     considered           futile      and

inappropriate.       However, Texas has not legalized

euthanasia    or     physician        assisted         death.       In

California,       though         75    of     people        support
                                                                        67


physician assisted death, the issue is highly

controversial in the State legislature.                            Forty

States in USA have enacted laws which explicitly

make    it   a   crime          to   provide     another        with   the

means of taking his or her life.



In 1977 California legalized living wills, and

other States soon followed suit.                      A living will

(also    known        as    advance       directive        or    advance

decision)        is        an     instruction         given       by    an

individual        while          conscious        specifying           what

action should be taken in the event he/she is

unable    to     make      a     decision       due   to   illness      or

incapacity, and appoints a person to take such

decisions on his/her behalf.                      It may include a

directive to withdraw life support on certain

eventualities.



Canada:

In Canada, physician assisted suicide is illegal

vide    Section       241(b)         of   the    Criminal       Code    of
                                                                   68


Canada.

The    leading    decision     of       the      Canadian    Supreme

Court in this connection is Sue Rodriguez                            v.

British    Columbia       (Attorney       General),         (1993)     3

SCR    519.       Rodriguez,        a    woman       of     43,   was

diagnosed      with   Amyotrophic             Lateral     Sclerosis

(ALS), and requested the Canadian Supreme Court

to allow someone to aid her in ending her life.

Her condition was deteriorating rapidly, and the

doctors told her that she would soon lose the

ability to swallow, speak, walk, and move her

body without assistance.                Thereafter she would

lose     her     capacity      to        breathe        without        a

respirator,      to   eat    without         a    gastrotomy,     and

would eventually be confined to bed.                        Her life

expectancy was 2 to 14 months.



The Canadian Supreme Court was deeply divided.

By a 5 to 4 majority her plea was rejected.

Justice       Sopinka,      speaking         for    the     majority

(which    included       Justices       La    Forest,     Gonthier,

Iacobucci and Major) observed :
                                                                     69


              "Sanctity    of    life   has   been
          understood historically as excluding
          freedom    of   choice    in  the   self
          infliction of death, and certainly in
          the involvement of others in carrying
          out that choice. At the very least, no
          new consensus has emerged in society
          opposing the right of the State to
          regulate the involvement of others in
          exercising    power    over  individuals
          ending their lives."



    The minority, consisting of Chief Justice Lamer

    and Justices L'Heureux-Dube, Cory and McLachlin,

    dissented.


PASSIVE EUTHANASIA


51. Passive     euthanasia         is       usually       defined     as

withdrawing     medical     treatment         with    a     deliberate

intention      of   causing       the   patient's      death.        For

example, if a patient requires kidney dialysis to

survive, not giving dialysis although the machine is

available, is passive euthanasia. Similarly, if a

patient   is   in   coma    or    on    a   heart     lung     machine,

withdrawing of the machine will ordinarily result in

passive     euthanasia.          Similarly      not       giving    life

saving    medicines        like     antibiotics           in    certain
                                                                        70


situations      may     result     in         passive        euthanasia.

Denying food to a person in coma or PVS may also

amount to passive euthanasia.



52. As already stated above, euthanasia can be both

voluntary or non voluntary.                  In voluntary passive

euthanasia a person who is capable of deciding for

himself decides that he would prefer to die (which

may be for various reasons e.g., that he is in great

pain or that the money being spent on his treatment

should instead be given to his family who are in

greater   need,       etc.),     and        for   this       purpose    he

consciously and of his own free will refuses to take

life   saving    medicines.            In    India,      if    a    person

consciously     and    voluntarily          refuses     to    take     life

saving medical treatment it is not a crime.                        Whether

not taking food consciously and voluntarily with the

aim of ending one's life is a crime under section

309 IPC (attempt to commit suicide) is a question

which need not be decided in this case.



53. Non   voluntary      passive       euthanasia        implies       that
                                                                         71


the    person      is   not    in    a   position       to   decide     for

himself e.g., if he is in coma or PVS.                       The present

is a case where we have to consider non voluntary

passive euthanasia i.e. whether to allow a person to

die    who    is    not   in     a    position     to     give     his/her

consent.



54.    There is a plethora of case law on the subject

of the Courts all over the world relating to both

active and passive euthanasia.                 It is not necessary

to    refer   in    detail     to     all   the    decisions       of   the

Courts in the world                 on the subject of euthanasia

or physically assisted dead (p.a.d.) but we think it

appropriate to refer in detail to certain landmark

decisions,      which     have       laid   down    the      law   on   the

subject.

THE AIREDALE CASE : (Airedale NHS Trust v. Bland (1993)
All E.R. 82) (H.L.)


55. In the Airedale case decided by the House of

Lords in the U.K., the facts were that one Anthony

Bland aged about 17 went to the Hillsborough Ground
                                                                     72


on 15th April 1989 to support the Liverpool Football

Club.     In the course of the disaster which occurred

on that day, his lungs were crushed and punctured

and the supply to his brain was interrupted.                      As a

result,    he    suffered     catastrophic          and   irreversible

damage to the higher centres of the brain.                          For

three     years,      he    was   in    a    condition      known    as

`persistent       vegetative      state      (PVS).        This   state

arises from the destruction of the cerebral cortex

on account of prolonged deprivation of oxygen, and

the cerebral cortex of Anthony had resolved into a

watery mass.          The cortex is that part of the brain

which is the seat of cognitive function and sensory

capacity.       Anthony Bland could not see, hear or feel

anything.       He could not communicate in any way.                His

consciousness, which is an essential feature of an

individual       personality,          had    departed        forever.

However,        his    brain-stem,          which     controls      the

reflective functions of the body, in particular the

heart beat, breathing and digestion, continued to

operate.        He    was   in    persistent        vegetative    state

(PVS) which is a recognized medical condition quite
                                                                                73


distinct from other conditions sometimes known as

"irreversible coma", "the Guillain-Barre syndrome",

"the locked-in syndrome" and "brain death".



56. The distinguishing characteristic of PVS is that

the brain stem remains alive and functioning while

the cortex has lost its function and activity.                             Thus

the PVS patient continues to breathe unaided and his

digestion continues to function.                        But although his

eyes    are   open,       he    cannot     see.         He    cannot      hear.

Although capable of reflex movement, particularly in

response      to         painful      stimuli,          the     patient         is

uncapable      of    voluntary        movement         and    can       feel    no

pain.    He cannot taste or smell.                     He cannot speak or

communicate         in    any      way.         He     has    no     cognitive

function      and    thus       can   feel       no     emotion,         whether

pleasure      or    distress.             The    absence        of      cerebral

function      is    not    a    matter     of        surmise;      it    can    be

scientifically demonstrated.                     The space which the

brain should occupy is full of watery fluid.



57. In order to maintain Mr. Bland in his condition,
                                                                                 74


feeding and hydration were achieved by artificial

means    of    a    nasogastric             tube    while    the        excretory

functions were regulated by a catheter and enemas.

According to eminent medical opinion, there was no

prospect      whatsoever          that        he    would        ever     make       a

recovery      from    his       condition,          but   there     was     every

likelihood         that    he     would       maintain      this        state    of

existence      for        many        years    to    come        provided        the

artificial means of medical care was continued.



58. In    this      state        of    affairs      the     medical       men    in

charge of Anthony Bland case took the view, which

was supported by his parents, that no useful purpose

would be served by continuing medical care, and that

artificial         feeding       and        other    measures           aimed    at

prolonging his existence should be stopped.                                 Since

however, there was a doubt as to whether this course

might constitute a criminal offence, the hospital

authorities sought a declaration from the British

High Court to resolve these doubts.



59. The       declaration             was     granted       by    the      Family
                                                                            75


Division of the High Court on 19.11.1992 and that

judgment      was    affirmed     by     the    Court    of    Appeal       on

9.12.1992.      A further appeal was made to the House

of Lords which then decided the case.



60. The      broad    issued      raised       before    the       House    of

Lords   in    the    Airedale      case      (supra)     was       "In    what

circumstances, if ever, can those having a duty to

feed an invalid lawfully stop doing so?"                             In fact

this is precisely the question raised in the present

case of Aruna Shanbaug            before us.



61.     In    Airedale's       case      (supra),       Lord       Keith    of

Kinkel,     noted    that    it    was      unlawful     to    administer

treatment to an adult who is conscious and of sound

mind,     without      his     consent.         Such     a     person       is

completely      at     liberty         to      decline        to     undergo

treatment, even if the result of his doing so will

be that he will die. This extends to the situation

where   the    person    in     anticipation        of       his   entering

into    a     condition        such      as     PVS,         gives       clear

instructions that in such an event he is not to be
                                                                           76


given    medical          care,    including    artificial         feeding,

designed to keep him alive.


62. It was held that if a person, due to accident or

some other cause becomes unconscious and is thus not

able     to     give       or     withhold     consent       to     medical

treatment,          in    that     situation    it    is     lawful       for

medical       men    to    apply     such    treatment     as     in   their

informed opinion is in the best interests of the

unconscious patient. That is what happened in the

case of Anthony            Bland     when he was first dealt with

by     the    emergency           services    and    later        taken    to

hospital.



63. When the incident happened the first imperative

was    to     prevent       Anthony    from    dying,      as     he   would

certainly have done in the absence of the steps that

were taken. For a time, no doubt, there was some

hope that he might recover sufficiently for him to

be able to live a life that had some meaning. Some

patients who have suffered damage to the cerebral

cortex have, indeed, made a complete recovery. It
                                                                                   77


all   depends        on      the    degree    of    damage.           But     sound

medical     opinion         takes    the     view     that     if       a    P.V.S.

patient shows no signs of recovery after six months,

or    at    most       a    year,    then     there       is     no     prospect

whatever of any recovery.



64. There        are       techniques       available        which         make    it

possible        to   ascertain        the    state      of     the      cerebral

cortex, and in Anthony Bland's case these indicated

that,      it    had       degenerated      into    a     mass        of     watery

fluid.          In this situation the question before the

House      of     Lords       was    whether        the      doctors          could

withdraw medical treatment or feeding Anthony Bland

thus allowing him to die.



65. It      was      held     by     Lord     Keith       that      a       medical

practitioner is under no duty to continue to treat

such a patient where a large body of informed and

responsible medical opinion is to the effect that no

benefit at all would be conferred by continuance of

the treatment.             Existence in a vegetative state with

no prospect of recovery is by that opinion regarded
                                                                              78


as not being of benefit to the patient.



66. Given        that        existence             in     the        persistent

vegetative state is of no benefit to the patient,

the    House     of    Lords       then       considered        whether       the

principle       of    the    sanctity         of    life      which     is    the

concern of the State (and the Judiciary is one of

the arms of the State) required the Court to hold

that    medical        treatment         to     Bland         could    not     be

discontinued.



67. Lord       Keith        observed      that          the    principle       of

sanctity    of       life    is    not    an       absolute         one.      For

instance,        it      does       not        compel          the      medical

practitioner on pain of criminal sanction to treat a

patient, who will die, if he does not, according to

the    express        wish    of    the       patient.         It     does    not

authorize forcible feeding of prisoners on hunger

strike.    It    does       not    compel      the      temporary       keeping

alive of patients who are terminally ill where to do

so would merely prolong their suffering.                                   On the

other hand, it forbids the taking of active measures
                                                                    79


to cut short the life of a terminally-ill patient

(unless there is legislation which permits it).



68.   Lord Keith observed that although the decision

whether or not the continued treatment and cure of a

PVS   patient     confers      any    benefit         on    him     is

essentially     one   for    the   medical    practitioners         in

charge of his case to decide, as a matter of routine

the   hospital/medical       practitioner         should   apply    to

the Family Division of the High Court for endorsing

or reversing the said decision.                   This is in the

interest     of   the       protection       of     the    patient,

protection of the doctors, and for the reassurance

of the patient's family and the public.

69.    In Airdale's case (Supra) another Judge on the

Bench, Lord Goff of Chievely observed:-
           "The central issue in the present case
           has been aptly stated by the Master of
           the Rolls to be whether artificial
           feeding   and    antibiotic    drugs   may
           lawfully be withheld from an insensate
           patient with no hope of recovery when
           it is known that if that is done the
           patient will shortly thereafter die.
           The   Court    of    Appeal,    like   the
           President,    answered    this    question
           generally in the affirmative, and (in
                                              80


the declarations made or approved by
them)   specifically    also     in    the
affirmative in relation to Anthony
Bland . I find myself to be in
agreement    with  the   conclusions    so
reached   by   all  the   judges    below,
substantially for the reasons given by
them. But the matter is of such
importance that I propose to express my
reasons in my own words.

I start with the simple fact that, in
law, Anthony is still alive. It is true
that his condition is such that it can
be described as a living death; but he
is nevertheless still alive. This is
because, as a result of developments in
modern medical technology, doctors no
longer associate death exclusively with
breathing and heart beat, and it has
come to be accepted that death occurs
when the brain, and in particular the
brain stem, has been destroyed (see
Professor Ian Kennedy's Paper entitled
"Switching off Life Support Machines:
The Legal Implications" reprinted in
Treat Me Right, Essays in Medical Law
and Ethics, (1988)), especially at pp.
351-2, and the material there cited).
There has been no dispute on this point
in   the   present  case,  and   it  is
unnecessary for me to consider it
further. The evidence is that Anthony's
brain    stem   is   still  alive   and
functioning and it follows that, in the
present state of medical science, he is
still alive and should be so regarded
as a matter of law.

It is on this basis that I turn to the
applicable principles of law. Here, the
fundamental principle is the principle
of the sanctity of human life ­ a
                                             81


principle long recognized not only in
our own society but also in most, if
not all, civilized societies throughout
the   modern   world,  as   is   indeed
evidenced by its recognition both in
article 2 of the European Convention of
Human Rights, and in article 6 of the
International Covenant of Civil and
Political Rights.

But this principle, fundamental though
it is, is not absolute. Indeed there
are circumstances in which it is lawful
to take another man's life, for example
by a lawful act of self-defence, or (in
the days when capital punishment was
acceptable in our society) by lawful
execution. We are not however concerned
with cases such as these. We are
concerned with circumstances in which
it may be lawful to withhold from a
patient medical treatment or care by
means   of  which   his  life   may  be
prolonged. But here too there is no
absolute rule that the patient's life
must be prolonged by such treatment or
care, if available, regardless of the
circumstances.

First, it is established that the
principle      of      self-determination
requires that respect must be given to
the wishes of the patient, so that if
an adult patient of sound mind refuses,
however unreasonably, to consent to
treatment or care by which his life
would   or   might  be   prolonged,   the
doctors responsible for his care must
give effect to his wishes, even though
they do not consider it to be in his
best   interests    to    do    so   (see
Schloendorff    v . Society of New York
Hospital 105 N.E. 92, 93, per Cardozo
                                            82


J. (1914); S. v . McC. (Orse S.) and M
(D.S. Intervene); W v . W [1972] A.C.
24, 43, per Lord Reid; and Sidaway v .
Board of Governors of the Bethlem Royal
Hospital and the Maudsley Hospital
[1985] AC 871, 882, per Lord Scarman).
To this extent, the principle of the
sanctity of human life must yield to
the principle of self- determination
(see Court of Appeal Transcript in the
present case, at p. 38F per Hoffmann
L.J.),   and,   for   present   purposes
perhaps more important, the doctor's
duty to act in the best interests of
his patient must likewise be qualified.
On this basis, it has been held that a
patient of sound mind may, if properly
informed, require that life support
should be discontinued: see Nancy B.
v. Hotel Dieu de Quebec (1992) 86
D.L.R. (4th) 385. Moreover the same
principle applies where the patient's
refusal to give his consent has been
expressed at an earlier date, before he
became    unconscious    or    otherwise
incapable of communicating it; though
in such circumstances especial care may
be necessary to ensure that the prior
refusal of consent is still properly to
be   regarded  as   applicable  in   the
circumstances which have subsequently
occurred (see, e.g. In re T. (Adult:
Refusal of treatment) [1992] 3 W.L.R.
782). I wish to add that, in cases of
this kind, there is no question of the
patient having committed suicide, nor
therefore of the doctor having aided or
abetted him in doing so. It is simply
that the patient has, as he is entitled
to do, declined to consent to treatment
which might or would have the effect of
prolonging his life, and the doctor
has, in accordance with his duty,
                                              83


complied with his patient's wishes.

But in many cases not only may the
patient be in no condition to be able
to say whether or not he consents to
the relevant treatment or care, but
also he may have given no prior
indication of his wishes with regard to
it. In the case of a child who is a
ward of court, the court itself will
decide whether medical treatment should
be   provided    in   the   child's   best
interests, taking into account medical
opinion. But the court cannot give its
consent on behalf of an adult patient
who is incapable of himself deciding
whether or not to consent to treatment.
I am of the opinion that there is
nevertheless   no    absolute   obligation
upon the doctor who has the patient in
his   care    to    prolong    his   life,
regardless    of     the    circumstances.
Indeed, it would be most startling, and
could lead to the most adverse and
cruel effects upon the patient, if any
such absolute rule were held to exist.
It is scarcely consistent with the
primacy given to the principle of self-
determination in those cases in which
the patient of sound mind has declined
to give his consent, that the law
should provide no means of enabling
treatment to be withheld in appropriate
circumstances where the patient is in
no condition to indicate, if that was
his wish, that he did not consent to
it. The point was put forcibly in the
judgment of the Supreme Judicial Court
of Massachusetts in Superintendent of
Belchertown State School      v. Saikewicz
(1977) 370 N.E. 2d. 417, 428, as
follows:
                                             84


"To presume that the incompetent person
must always be subjected to what many
rational and intelligent persons may
decline is to downgrade the status of
the incompetent person by placing a
lesser value on his intrinsic human
worth and vitality."

I must however stress, at this point,
that   the    law    draws   a    crucial
distinction between cases in which a
doctor decides not to provide, or to
continue to provide, for his patient
treatment or care which could or might
prolong his life, and those in which he
decides, for example by administering a
lethal drug, actively to bring his
patient's life to an end. As I have
already indicated, the former may be
lawful, either because the doctor is
giving effect to his patient's wishes
by withholding the treatment or care,
or even in certain circumstances in
which (on principles which I shall
describe) the patient is incapacitated
from stating whether or not he gives
his consent. But it is not lawful for a
doctor to administer a drug to his
patient to bring about his death, even
though that course is prompted by a
humanitarian    desire    to   end    his
suffering, however great that suffering
may be: see Reg. v. Cox (Unreported),
Ognall J., Winchester Crown Court, 18
September 1992. So to act is to cross
the Rubicon which runs between on the
one hand the care of the living patient
and on the other hand euthanasia -
actively causing his death to avoid or
to end his suffering. Euthanasia is not
lawful at common law. It is of course
well   known   that    there   are   many
responsible members of our society who
                                            85


believe that euthanasia should be made
lawful;   but  that   result  could,   I
believe,    only    be    achieved    by
legislation    which    expresses    the
democratic will that so fundamental a
change should be made in our law, and
can, if enacted, ensure that such
legalised killing can only be carried
out subject to appropriate supervision
and control. It is true that the
drawing of this distinction may lead to
a charge of hypocrisy; because it can
be asked why, if the doctor, by
discontinuing treatment, is entitled in
consequence to let his patient die, it
should not be lawful to put him out of
his misery straight away, in a more
humane manner, by a lethal injection,
rather than let him linger on in pain
until he dies. But the law does not
feel able to authorize euthanasia, even
in circumstances such as these; for
once euthanasia is recognized as lawful
in these circumstances, it is difficult
to see any logical basis for excluding
it in others.

At the heart of this distinction lies a
theoretical question. Why is it that
the doctor who gives his patient a
lethal   injection   which  kills   him
commits an unlawful act and indeed is
guilty of murder, whereas a doctor who,
by discontinuing life support, allows
his patient to die, may not act
unlawfully - and will not do so, if he
commits no breach of duty to his
patient? Professor Glanville Williams
has suggested (see his Textbook of
Criminal Law, 2nd ed., p. 282) that the
reason is that what the doctor does
when he switches off a life support
machine 'is in substance not an act but
                                              86


an omission to struggle, and that 'the
omission is not a breach of duty by the
doctor because he is not obliged to
continue in a hopeless case'.

I agree that the doctor's conduct in
discontinuing life support can properly
be categorized as an omission. It is
true that it may be difficult to
describe what the doctor actually does
as an omission, for example where he
takes some positive step to bring the
life    support    to    an    end.    But
discontinuation of life support is, for
present purposes, no different from not
initiating life support in the first
place. In each case, the doctor is
simply allowing his patient to die in
the sense that he is desisting from
taking a step which might, in certain
circumstances, prevent his patient from
dying as a result of his pre-existing
condition; and as a matter of general
principle an omission such as this will
not be unlawful unless it constitutes a
breach of duty to the patient. I also
agree that the doctor's conduct is to
be differentiated from that of, for
example, an interloper who maliciously
switches off a life support machine
because, although the interloper may
perform exactly the same act as the
doctor who discontinues life support,
his doing so constitutes interference
with the life-prolonging treatment then
being   administered   by    the   doctor.
Accordingly, whereas the doctor, in
discontinuing life support, is simply
allowing his patient to die of his pre-
existing condition, the interloper is
actively intervening to stop the doctor
from prolonging the patient's life, and
such   conduct    cannot    possibly    be
                                              87


categorised as an omission.

The distinction appears, therefore, to
be useful in the present context in
that it can be invoked to explain how
discontinuance of life support can be
differentiated from ending a patient's
life by a lethal injection. But in the
end the reason for that difference is
that, whereas the law considers that
discontinuance of life support may be
consistent with the doctor's duty to
care for his patient, it does not, for
reasons of policy, consider that it
forms any part of his duty to give his
patient a lethal injection to put him
out of his agony.

I return to the patient who, because
for example he is of unsound mind or
has   been   rendered     unconscious   by
accident or by illness, is incapable of
stating whether or not he consents to
treatment     or      care.     In    such
circumstances, it is now established
that a doctor may lawfully treat such a
patient   if   he   acts    in   his  best
interests, and indeed that, if the
patient is already in his care, he is
under a duty so to treat him: see In re
F [1990] 2 AC 1, in which the legal
principles governing treatment in such
circumstances    were   stated    by  this
House. For my part I can see no reason
why, as a matter of principle, a
decision by a doctor whether or not to
initiate, or to continue to provide,
treatment or care which could or might
have the effect of prolonging such a
patient's life, should not be governed
by the same fundamental principle. Of
course, in the great majority of cases,
the best interests of the patient are
                                               88


likely to require that treatment of
this kind, if available, should be
given to a patient. But this may not
always be so. To take a simple example
given by Thomas J. in Re J.H.L.
(Unreported)    (High    Court   of     New
Zealand) 13 August 1992, at p. 35), to
whose judgment in that case I wish to
pay tribute, it cannot be right that a
doctor, who has under his care a
patient    suffering     painfully     from
terminal cancer, should be under an
absolute obligation to perform upon him
major    surgery    to    abate     another
condition which, if unabated, would or
might shorten his life still further.
The doctor who is caring for such a
patient cannot, in my opinion, be under
an absolute obligation to prolong his
life by any means available to him,
regardless   of   the   quality    of   the
patient's     life.    Common     humanity
requires   otherwise,    as   do    medical
ethics   and    good   medical    practice
accepted in this country and overseas.
As I see it, the doctor's decision
whether or not to take any such step
must (subject to his patient's ability
to give or withhold his consent) be
made in the best interests of the
patient. It is this principle too
which, in my opinion, underlies the
established rule that a doctor may,
when caring for a patient who is, for
example, dying of cancer, lawfully
administer painkilling drugs despite
the   fact   that   he   knows   that    an
incidental effect of that application
will be to abbreviate the patient's
life. Such a decision may properly be
made as part of the care of the living
patient, in his best interests; and, on
this basis, the treatment will be
                                                89


lawful. Moreover, where the doctor's
treatment of his patient is lawful, the
patient's death will be regarded in law
as exclusively caused by the injury or
disease to which his condition is
attributable.

It is of course the development of
modern   medical     technology,    and   in
particular the development of life
support systems, which has rendered
cases such as the present so much more
relevant than in the past. Even so,
where   (for    example)    a   patient   is
brought   into     hospital    in   such   a
condition that, without the benefit of
a life support system, he will not
continue to live, the decision has to
be made whether or not to give him that
benefit, if available. That decision
can only be made in the best interests
of the patient. No doubt, his best
interests will ordinarily require that
he should be placed on a life support
system as soon as necessary, if only to
make an accurate assessment of his
condition and a prognosis for the
future. But if he neither recovers
sufficiently to be taken off it nor
dies, the question will ultimately
arise whether he should be kept on it
indefinitely.     As   I   see    it,   that
question     (assuming     the     continued
availability of the system) can only be
answered by reference to the best
interests    of    the   patient    himself,
having regard to established medical
practice. Indeed, if the justification
for treating a patient who lacks the
capacity to consent lies in the fact
that the treatment is provided in his
best interests, it must follow that the
treatment may, and indeed ultimately
                                            90


should, be discontinued where it is no
longer in his best interests to provide
it. The question which lies at the
heart of the present case is, as I see
it, whether on that principle the
doctors responsible for the treatment
and care of Anthony        Bland    can
justifiably discontinue the process of
artificial   feeding  upon   which  the
prolongation of his life depends.

It is crucial for the understanding of
this question that the question itself
should be correctly formulated. The
question is not whether the doctor
should take a course which will kill
his patient, or even take a course
which has the effect of accelerating
his death. The question is whether the
doctor should or should not continue to
provide   his   patient  with    medical
treatment or care which, if continued,
will prolong his patient's life. The
question is sometimes put in striking
or   emotional  terms,  which   can   be
misleading. For example, in the case of
a life support system, it is sometimes
asked: Should a doctor be entitled to
switch it off, or to pull the plug? And
then it is asked: Can it be in the best
interests of the patient that a doctor
should be able to switch the life
support system off, when this will
inevitably result in the patient's
death? Such an approach has rightly
been criticised as misleading, for
example by Professor Ian Kennedy (in
his paper in Treat Me Right, Essays in
Medical Law and Ethics (1988), and by
Thomas J. in Re J.H.L. at pp. 21- 22.
This is because the question is not
whether it is in the best interests of
the patient that he should die. The
                                                     91


          question is whether it is in the best
          interests of the patient that his life
          should be prolonged by the continuance
          of this form of medical treatment or
          care.

          The correct formulation of the question
          is of particular importance in a case
          such as the present, where the patient
          is totally unconscious and where there
          is   no    hope   whatsoever    of  any
          amelioration   of  his   condition.  In
          circumstances such as these, it may be
          difficult to say that it is in his best
          interests that the treatment should be
          ended. But if the question is asked, as
          in my opinion it should be, whether it
          is in his best interests that treatment
          which has the effect of artificially
          prolonging    his   life     should  be
          continued, that question can sensibly
          be answered to the effect that it is
          not in his best interests to do so.



                              (emphasis supplied)



70. In a Discussion Paper on Treatment of Patients

in Persistent Vegetative State issued in September

1992 by the Medical Ethics Committee of the British

Medical    Association   certain    safeguards      were

mentioned which

should be observed before constituting life support

for such patients:-
                                                             92


           "(1) Every effort should be made at
           rehabilitation for at least six months
           after the injury; (2) The diagnosis of
           irreversible    PVS   should   not   be
           considered confirmed until at least
           twelve months after the injury, with
           the   effect   that  any   decision  to
           withhold life prolonging treatment will
           be delayed for that period; (3) The
           diagnosis should be agreed by two other
           independent doctors; and (4) Generally,
           the wishes of the patient's immediate
           family will be given great weight."



71. Lord      Goff   observed    that     discontinuance     of

artificial feeding in such cases is not equivalent

to cutting a mountaineer's rope, or severing the air

pipe of a deep sea diver.         The true question is not

whether the doctor should take a course in which he

will actively kill his patient, but rather whether

he   should    continue   to    provide    his   patient    with

medical treatment or care which, if continued, will

prolong his life.



72. Lord      Browne-Wilkinson    was     of   the   view   that

removing the nasogastric tube in the case of Anthony

Bland cannot be regarded as a positive act causing

the death.      The tube itself, without the food being
                                                         93


supplied through it, does nothing.         Its non removal

itself does not cause the death since by itself, it

does not sustain life.       Hence removal of the tube

would   not   constitute   the   actus   reus   of   murder,

since such an act would not cause the death.



73. Lord Mustill observed:-

             "Threaded   through   the  technical
         arguments addressed to the House were
         the strands of a much wider position,
         that it is in the best interests of the
         community at large that Anthony Bland's
         life should now end.    The doctors have
         done all they can.      Nothing will be
         gained by going on and much will be
         lost.   The distress of the family will
         get steadily worse.   The strain on the
         devotion of a medical staff charged
         with the care of a patient whose
         condition will never improve, who may
         live for years and who does not even
         recognize that he is being cared for,
         will continue to mount.       The large
         resources of skill, labour and money
         now being devoted to Anthony Bland
         might in the opinion of many be more
         fruitfully employed in improving the
         condition of other patients, who if
         treated may have useful, healthy and
         enjoyable lives for years to come."



74. Thus all the Judges of the House of Lords in the

Airedale case (supra) were agreed that Anthony Bland
                                                                        94


should be allowed to die.



75. Airedale (1993) decided by the House of Lords

has been followed in a number of cases in U.K., and

the law is now fairly well settled that in the case

of incompetent patients, if the doctors act on the

basis of informed medical opinion, and withdraw the

artificial    life    support      system       if     it    is   in    the

patient's    best    interest,         the    said     act   cannot     be

regarded as a crime.



76. The question, however, remains as to who is to

decide what is the patient's best interest where he

is in a persistent vegetative state (PVS)?                             Most

decisions     have    held      that     the     decision         of   the

parents,    spouse,     or     other    close    relative,          should

carry weight if it is an informed one, but it is not

decisive     (several     of     these       decisions       have      been

referred to in Chapter IV of the 196th Report of the

Law   Commission     of   India    on        Medical    Treatment       to

Terminally ill Patients).
                                                                            95


77. It is ultimately for the Court to decide, as

parens    patriae,         as   to     what    is     is    in    the    best

interest of the patient, though the wishes of close

relatives and next friend, and opinion of medical

practitioners should be given due weight in coming

to its decision.           As stated by Balcombe, J. in In Re

J ( A Minor Wardship : Medical Treatment) 1990(3)

All E.R. 930, the Court as representative of the

Sovereign       as   parens       patriae      will    adopt       the   same

standard which a reasonable and responsible parent

would do.


78. The     parens         patriae     (father        of    the    country)

jurisdiction         was    the    jurisdiction            of    the   Crown,

which, as stated in Airedale, could be traced to the

13th Century.         This principle laid down that as the

Sovereign it was the duty of the King to protect the

person    and    property         of   those    who    were       unable    to

protect themselves.               The Court, as a wing of the

State, has inherited the parens patriae jurisdiction

which formerly belonged to the King.

 U.S. decisions
                                                                      96


79. The     two    most   significant          cases    of   the     U.S.

Supreme Court that addressed the issue whether there

was    a   federal      constitutional         right    to    assisted

suicide arose from challenges to State laws banning

physician assisted suicide brought by terminally ill

patients and their physicians. These were Washington

vs.    Glucksberg 521 U.S. 702 (1997) and Vacco                      vs.

Quill 521 U.S. 793 (1997).



80. In     Glucksberg's        case,    the    U.S.    Supreme      Court

held   that       the   asserted       right    to     assistance     in

committing    suicide      is     not    a     fundamental     liberty

interest protected by the Due Process Clause of the

Fourteenth Amendment.           The Court observed :
           "The decision to commit suicide with
           the assistance of another may be just
           as   personal   and  profound   as  the
           decision to refuse unwanted medical
           treatment, but it has never enjoyed
           similar legal protection.    Indeed the
           two acts are widely and reasonably
           regarded as quite distinct."



81. The     Court       went     on     to     conclude      that    the

Washington statute being challenged was rationally
                                                                       97


related    to    five    legitimate      government         interest       :

protection        of     life,     prevention          of        suicide,

protection       of    ethical    integrity      of     the       medical

profession,      protection       of   vulnerable       groups,       and

protection       against    the    "slippery      slope"          towards

euthanasia.       The Court then noted that perhaps the

individual States were more suited to resolving or

at least addressing the myriad concerns raised by

both proponents and opponents of physician assisted

suicide.    The Court observed :

               "Throughout the Nation, Americans
           are engaged in an earnest and profound
           debate about the morality, legality and
           practicality    of  physician  assisted
           suicide.     Our holding permits this
           debate to continue, as it should in a
           democratic society."


82. In Vacco's case (supra) the U.S. Supreme Court
again   recognized       the    distinction      between         refusing
life    saving    medical      treatment    and       giving       lethal
medication.       The Court disagreed with the view of
the    Second    Circuit    Federal      Court    that       ending    or
refusing    lifesaving         medical   treatment          is    nothing
more nor less than assisted suicide.                  The Court held
that "the distinction between letting a patient die
and making that patient die is important, logical,
                                                                           98


rational,    and     well    established".               The     Court   held
that the State of New York could validly ban the
latter.


83.          In    Cruzan        v.     Director,         MDH,    497     U.S.
261(1990)    decided        by    the       U.S.    Supreme      Court     the
majority opinion was delivered by the Chief Justice
Rehnquist.


84. In     that    case,         the       petitioner        Nancy   Cruzan

sustained injuries in an automobile accident and lay

in    a   Missouri      State     hospital         in     what    has     been

referred to as a persistent vegetative state (PVS),

a     condition    in    which         a    person        exhibits       motor

reflexes but evinces no indication of significant

cognitive    function.                The    state      of   Missouri      was

bearing the cost of her care.                      Her parents and co-

guardians    applied      to      the      Court    for      permission    to

withdraw     her     artificial             feeding       and     hydration

equipment and allow her to die.                         While the trial

Court granted the prayer, the State Supreme Court of

Missouri reversed, holding that under a statute in

the State of Missouri it was necessary to prove by
                                                              99


clear and convincing evidence that the incompetent

person had wanted, while competent, withdrawal of

life support treatment in such an eventuality.                The

only    evidence    led   on   that   point   was   the   alleged

statement of Nancy Cruzan to a housemate about a

year before the accident that she did not want life

as a `vegetable'.         The State Supreme Court was of

the view that this did not amount to saying that

medical treatment or nutrition or hydration should

be withdrawn.



85. Chief Justice Rehnquist delivering the opinion

of   the    Court   (in   which   Justices    White,   O'Connor,

Scalia, and Kennedy, joined) in his judgment first

noted      the facts:-


              "On the night of January 11, 1983,
            Nancy Cruzan lost control of her car as
            she traveled down Elm Road in Jasper
            County,     Missouri.      The     vehicle
            overturned, and Cruzan was discovered
            lying face down in a ditch without
            detectable    respiratory     or   cardiac
            function.   Paramedics    were   able   to
            restore her breathing and heartbeat at
            the   accident    site,    and   she   was
            transported   to    a   hospital   in   an
            unconscious     state.     An    attending
                                              10


neurosurgeon diagnosed her as having
sustained probable cerebral contusions
compounded by significant anoxia (lack
of oxygen). The Missouri trial court in
this case found that permanent brain
damage   generally     results    after  6
minutes in an anoxic state; it was
estimated that Cruzan was deprived of
oxygen from 12 to 14 minutes. She
remained in a coma for approximately
three weeks, and then progressed to an
unconscious state in which she was able
to orally ingest some nutrition. In
order to ease feeding and further the
recovery,     surgeons      implanted    a
gastrostomy feeding and hydration tube
in Cruzan with the consent of her then
husband.    Subsequent      rehabilitative
efforts proved unavailing. She now lies
in a Missouri state hospital in what is
commonly referred to as a persistent
vegetative     state:      generally,    a
condition in which a person exhibits
motor    reflexes     but     evinces   no
indications of significant cognitive
function. 1 The State of Missouri is
bearing the cost of her care. [497 U.S.
261, 267]

After it had become apparent that Nancy
Cruzan had virtually no chance of
regaining her mental faculties, her
parents asked hospital employees to
terminate the artificial nutrition and
hydration procedures. All agree that
such a [497 U.S. 261, 268]       removal
would cause her death. The employees
refused to honor the request without
court approval. The parents then sought
and received authorization from the
state trial court for termination."
                                                                  10


86. While the trial Court allowed the petition the
State Supreme Court of Missouri reversed.                  The US
Supreme Court by majority affirmed the verdict of
the State Supreme Court


87. Chief Justice Rehnquist noted that in law even

touching of one person by another without consent

and without legal justification was a battery, and

hence illegal.      The notion of bodily integrity has

been   embodied    in   the     requirement      that    informed

consent is generally required for medical treatment.

As observed by Justice Cardozo, while on the Court

of Appeals of New York "Every human being of adult

years and sound mind has a right to determine what

shall be done with his own body, and a surgeon who

performs an operation without his patient's consent

commits   an    assault,    for   which     he    is    liable    in

damages." vide Schloendorff           vs.        Society of New

York Hospital, 211 N.Y. 125, 129-30, 105 N.E. 92, 93

(1914).        Thus the informed consent doctrine has

become firmly entrenched in American Tort Law.                   The

logical   corollary        of   the   doctrine     of    informed
                                                          10


consent is that the patient generally possesses the

right not to consent, that is to refuse treatment.



88. The question, however, arises in cases where the

patient is unable to decide whether the treatment

should continue or not e.g. if he is in coma or PVS.

Who is to give consent to terminate the treatment in

such a case?   The learned Chief Justice referred to

a large number of decisions of Courts in U.S.A. in

this connection, often taking diverse approaches.



89. In re Quinlan 70 N.J.10, 355 A. 2d 647, Karen

Quinlan suffered severe brain damage as a result of

anoxia, and entered into PVS.            Her father sought

judicial approval to disconnect her respirator.           The

New Jersey Supreme Court granted the prayer, holding

that Karen had a right of privacy grounded in the

U.S. Constitution to terminate treatment.         The Court

concluded   that   the   way   Karen's   right   to   privacy

could be exercised would be to allow her guardian

and family to decide whether she would exercise it

in the circumstances.
                                                                       10




90. In re Conroy 98 NJ 321, 486 A.2d 1209 (1985),

however, the New Jersey Supreme Court, in a case of

an 84 year old incompetent nursing home resident who

had     suffered      irreversible          mental       and    physical

ailments,       contrary     to     its    decision      in    Quinlan's

case, decided to base its decision on the common law

right to self determination and informed consent.

This right can be exercised by a surrogate decision

maker    when    there      was    a     clear   evidence      that   the

incompetent person would have exercised it.                         Where

such evidence was lacking the Court held that an

individual's right could still be invoked in certain

circumstances         under        objective          `best    interest'

standards.        Where no trustworthy evidence existed

that the individual would have wanted to terminate

treatment, and a person's suffering would make the

administration         of         life      sustaining         treatment

inhumane, a pure objective standard could be used to

terminate       the   treatment.                 If    none    of   these

conditions obtained, it was best to err in favour of

preserving life.
                                                           10




91. What     is   important   to   note   in   Cruzan's   case

(supra) is that there was a statute of the State of

Missouri, unlike in Airedale's case (where there was

none), which required clear and convincing evidence

that while the patient was competent she had desired

that if she becomes incompetent and in a PVS her

life support should be withdrawn.



92. In Cruzan's case (supra) the learned Chief Justice

observed :


             "Not all incompetent patients will
           have loved ones available to serve as
           surrogate decision makers.    And even
           where family members are present, there
           will be, of course, some unfortunate
           situations in which family members will
           not act to protect a patient. A State
           is entitled to guard against potential
           abuses in such situations."


93. The learned Chief Justice further observed :

              "An   erroneous    decision   not to
           terminate results in maintenance of the
           status    quo;    the   possibility  of
           subsequent     developments    such  as
           advancements in medical science, the
           discovery of new evidence regarding the
                                                         10


           patient's intent, changes in the law,
           or simply the unexpected death of the
           patient despite the administration of
           life-sustaining  treatment,   at  least
           create the potential that a wrong
           decision will eventually be corrected
           or its impact mitigated.   An erroneous
           decision to withdraw life-sustaining
           treatment, however, is not susceptible
           of correction."



94. No doubt Mr. Justice Brennan (with whom Justices

Marshall    and   Blackmun   joined)   wrote    a   powerful

dissenting opinion, but it is not necessary for us

to go into the question whether the view of the

learned Chief Justice or that of Justice Brennan, is

correct.



95. It may be clarified that foreign decisions have

only persuasive value in our country, and are not

binding authorities on our Courts.             Hence we can

even prefer to follow the minority view, rather than

the majority view, of a foreign decision, or follow

an overruled foreign decision.



96. Cruzan's case (supra) can be distinguished on
                                                                         10


the simple ground that there was a statute in the

State of Missouri, whereas there was none in the

Airedale's case nor in the present case before us.

We    are,     therefore,        of        the     opinion      that        the

Airedale's         case   (supra)      is        more   apposite       as     a

precedent for us.            No doubt foreign decisions are

not   binding        on    us,     but       they       certainly       have

persuasive value.

LAW IN INDIA

97. In India abetment of suicide (Section 306 Indian

Penal Code) and attempt to suicide (Section 309 of

Indian Penal Code) are both criminal offences.                          This

is in contrast to many countries such as USA where

attempt to suicide is not a crime.



98. The      Constitution        Bench      of    the   Indian     Supreme

Court in Gian Kaur           vs.       State of Punjab, 1996(2)

SCC   648     held    that   both        euthanasia       and    assisted

suicide      are    not   lawful      in    India.       That    decision

overruled the earlier two Judge Bench decision of

the Supreme Court in P. Rathinam                        vs.      Union of
                                                                   10


India, 1994(3) SCC 394.              The Court held that the

right to life under Article 21 of the Constitution

does not include the right to die (vide para 33).

In     Gian    Kaur's      case   (supra)     the    Supreme     Court

approved of the decision of the House of Lords in

Airedale's        case      (supra),        and     observed      that

euthanasia could be made lawful only by legislation.



99. Sections 306 and 309 IPC read as under :

              "306.    Abetment of suicide -If             any
              person commits suicide, whoever            abets
              the commission of such suicide,            shall
              be punished with imprisonment of          either
              description for a term which may          extend
              to ten years, and shall also be           liable
              to fine.

                  309.Attempt to commit suicide -
                  Whoever attempts to commit suicide
              and does any act towards the commission
              of such offence, shall be punished with
              simple imprisonment for a term which
              may extend to one year or with fine, or
              with both."



100. We are of the opinion that although Section 309

Indian Penal Code (attempt to commit suicide) has

been    held     to   be    constitutionally        valid   in    Gian
                                                                    10


Kaur's    case    (supra),     the     time   has    come   when       it

should be deleted by Parliament as it has become

anachronistic.         A   person      attempts      suicide      in    a

depression,      and   hence    he   needs    help,      rather    than

punishment.       We therefore recommend to Parliament to

consider    the    feasibility       of    deleting      Section    309

from the Indian Penal Code.



101. It may be noted that in Gian Kaur's case (supra)

although the Supreme Court has quoted with approval

the view of the House of Lords in Airedale's case

(supra), it has not clarified who can decide whether

life support should be discontinued in the case of

an incompetent person e.g. a person in coma or PVS.

This vexed question has been arising often in India

because    there    are    a   large      number    of   cases    where

persons go into coma (due to an accident or some

other reason) or for some other reason are unable to

give consent, and then the question arises as to who

should give consent for withdrawal of life support.



102. This is an extremely important question in India
                                                                           10


because       of    the   unfortunate       low   level       of     ethical

standards to which our society has descended, its

raw     and        widespread     commercialization,               and     the

rampant corruption, and hence, the Court has to be

very cautious that unscrupulous persons who wish to

inherit       the    property    of   someone      may      not    get    him

eliminated by some crooked method.



103. Also, since medical science is advancing fast,

doctors must not declare a patient to be a hopeless

case     unless       there     appears     to    be     no    reasonable

possibility          of   any     improvement          by     some       newly

discovered medical method in the near future.                               In

this connection we may refer to a recent news item

which we have come across on the internet of an

Arkansas man Terry Wallis, who was 19 years of age

and newly married with a baby daughter when in 1984

his truck plunged through a guard rail, falling 25

feet.     He went into coma in the crash in 1984, but

after 24 years he has regained consciousness.                             This

was perhaps because his brain spontaneously rewired

itself    by       growing    tiny    new   nerve       connections        to
                                                                  11


replace the ones sheared apart in the car crash.

Probably the nerve fibers from Terry Wallis' cells

were     severed   but   the     cells     themselves       remained

intact, unlike Terri Schiavo, whose brain cells had

died (see Terri Schiavo's case on Google).



104. However, we make it clear that it is experts

like medical practitioners who can decide whether

there is any reasonable possibility of a new medical

discovery    which     could    enable     such   a    patient    to

revive in the near future.

WHEN CAN A PERSON IS SAID TO BE DEAD


105. It is alleged in the writ petition filed by Ms.

Pinky Virani         (claiming to be the next friend of

Aruna    Shanbaug)     that    in   fact    Aruna     Shanbaug    is

already dead and hence by not feeding her body any

more we shall not be killing her.                     The question

hence arises as to when a person can be said to be

dead ?



106. A    person's    most     important    organ      is    his/her
                                                                      11


brain.    This organ cannot be replaced.                       Other body

parts can be replaced e.g. if a person's hand or leg

is    amputed,        he     can    get     an     artificial       limb.

Similarly, we can transplant a kidney, a heart or a

liver when the original one has failed.                    However, we

cannot transplant a brain.                If someone      else's brain

is transplanted into one's body, then in fact, it

will be that other person living in one's body.                       The

entire mind, including one's personality, cognition,

memory, capacity of receiving signals from the five

senses and capacity of giving commands to the other

parts of the body, etc. are the functions of the

brain.    Hence one is one's brain.                  It follows that

one is dead when one's brain is dead.



107. As is well-known, the brain cells normally do

not   multiply    after       the    early       years    of    childhood

(except in the region called hippocampus), unlike

other    cells   like      skin     cells,    which      are    regularly

dying and being replaced by new cells produced by

multiplying      of    the    old    cells.        This    is    probably

because brain cells are too highly specialized to
                                                                      11


multiply.       Hence      if    the     brain   cells     die,    they

usually    cannot     be   replaced       (though    sometimes       one

part of the brain can take over the function of

another part in certain situations where the other

part has been irreversibly damaged).



108. Brain    cells    require      regular      supply    of    oxygen

which comes through the red cells in the blood.                       If

oxygen supply is cut off for more than six minutes,

the brain cells die and this condition is known as

anoxia.       Hence, if the brain is dead a person is

said to be dead.



BRAIN DEATH

109. The   term    `brain       death'    has    developed      various

meanings. While initially, death could be defined as

a cessation of breathing, or, more scientifically, a

cessation     of    heart-beat,        recent    medical     advances

have   made    such   definitions        obsolete.    In     order    to

understand the nature and scope of brain death, it

is worthwhile to look at how death was understood.
                                                                     11


Historically,         as      the   oft-quoted         definition     in

Black's Law Dictionary suggests, death was:

"The     cessation       of    life;     the   ceasing       to   exist;

defined by physicians as a total stoppage of the

circulation of the blood, and a cessation of the

animal and vital functions consequent thereon, such

as respiration, pulsation, etc.".1 This definition

saw its echo in numerous other texts and legal case

law. This includes many American precedents- such as

Schmidt v. Pierce, 344 S.W.2d 120, 133 (Mo. 1961)

("Black's Law Dictionary, 4th Ed., defines death as

`the       cessation          of    life;       the      ceasing      to

exist ...."'); and Sanger v. Butler, 101 S.W. 459,

462     (Tex.     Civ.     App.     1907)      ("The    Encyclopaedic

Dictionary,        among       others,      gives      the    following

definitions of [death]: `The state of being dead;

the act or state of dying; the state or condition of

the dead.' The Century Dictionary defines death as

`cessation of life; that state of a being, animal or

vegetable, in which there is a total and permanent


1   Black's Law Dictionary 488 (4th ed., rev. 1968).
                                                                               11


cessation of all the vital functions."').2



110. This      understanding           of      death      emerged          from     a

cardiopulmonary             perspective.           In    such       cases,        the

brain    was     usually       irrelevant          --    being       understood

that       the        cessation           of         circulation             would

automatically          lead    to      the     death      of       brain    cells,

which require a great deal of blood to survive.



111. The       invention          of     the       ventilator          and        the

defibrillator           in         the         1920s       altered            this

understanding,          it     being         now     possible         that        the

cessation        of    respiration           and     circulation,           though

critical, would no longer be irreversible3. Hence, a

present-day           understanding             of       death         as         the

irreversible          end    of    life      must       imply       total    brain

failure,         such        that        neither          breathing,              nor

circulation is possible any more. The question of

the length of time that may determine such death is

significant,          especially         considering           a    significant
2  Goldsmith, Jason, Wanted! Dead and/or Alive: Choosing Amongst the Many
  Not-so-Uniform Definitions of Death, 61 U. Miami L. Rev. 871. (2007).
3 Samantha Weyrauch, Acceptance of Whole Brain Death Criteria for
  Determination of Death: A Comparative Analysis of the United States and
  Japan, 17 UCLA Pac. Basin L.J. 91, 96. (1999).
                                                                            11


increase       in    organ     donations         across      jurisdictions

over the last few years.


112. Brain        death,     may    thus,        be    defined    as       "the

irreversible         cessation       of     all       functions       of   the

entire brain, including the brain stem".4                              It is

important to understand that this definition goes

beyond acknowledging consciousness -- a person who

is incapable of ever regaining consciousness will

not be considered to be brain dead as long as parts

of     the     brain       e.g.     brain        stem     that    regulate

involuntary         activity       (such    as    response       to    light,

respiration,         heartbeat        etc.)       still      continue       to

function.            Likewise,        if    consciousness,             albeit

severely limited, is present, then a person will be

considered to be alive even if he has suffered brain

stem death, wherein breathing and heartbeat can no

longer       be     regulated       and     must        be   mechanically

determined.         Hence,    the    international           standard      for

brain death is usually considered to include "whole-


4    Section 1, Universal Determination of Death Act, (The United States
    Legislation)
                                                                            11


brain    death",       i.e.,    a     situation       where    the    higher

brain (i.e. the part of the brain that regulates

consciousness and thought), the cerebellum or mid-

brain,        and    the     brain-stem        have    all     ceased       to

demonstrate any electrical activity whatsoever for a

significant amount of time. To say, in most cases,

that only the death of the higher brain would be a

criteria for `brain death' may have certain serious

consequences -- for example, a foetus, technically

under this definition, would not be considered to be

alive    at     all.    Similarly,       as     per    this,    different

definitions of death would apply to human and non-

human organisms.


113. Brain          death,     thus,      is     different          from        a

persistent vegetative state, where the brain stem

continues to work, and so some degree of reactions

may     occur,       though     the    possibility        of    regaining

consciousness          is    relatively    remote.           Even    when       a

person is incapable of any response, but is able to

sustain respiration and circulation, he cannot be

said     to     be     dead.    The     mere     mechanical          act    of
                                                                              11


breathing,        thus,    would     enable      him       or    her    to    be

"alive".


114. The first attempt to define death in this manner

came      about    in     1968,    as     a    result      of     a    Harvard

Committee         constituted        for       the      purpose.5           This

definition, widely criticized for trying to maximize

organ donations, considered death to be a situation

wherein       "individuals        who    had    sustained         traumatic

brain       injury      that      caused       them     to       be    in     an

irreversible         coma,     and      had    lost    the       ability      to

breathe spontaneously"6, would be considered dead.

This criticism led to the Presidents' Committee, set

up for the purpose, in 1981, defining death more

vaguely as the point "where the body's physiological

system ceases to contribute a uniform whole".

This definition of whole brain death, however, is

not without its critics. Some argue that the brain

is      not       always       responsible           for        all     bodily

5    Ad Hoc Comm. of the Harvard Med. Sch. to Examine the Definition of
    Brain Death, A Definition of Irreversible Coma, 205 JAMA 337, 337-40
    (1968).

6    Seema K. Shah, Franklin Miller, Can We Handle The Truth? Legal
    Fictions in the Determination of Death. 36 Am. J.L. & Med. 540 (2010).
                                                                         11


functioning- digestion, growth, and some degree of

movement       (regulated       by   the   spinal       cord)    may    not

require       any    electrical      activity     in    the    brain.    In

order to combat this argument, and further explain

what    brain        death   could    include,         the    President's

Committee       on    Bio-ethics      in   the    United       States    of

America in 2008 came up with a new definition of

brain       death,     according      to    which       a     person    was

considered to be brain dead when he could no longer

perform the fundamental human work of an organism.

These are:

"(1) "openness to the world, that is receptivity to
stimuli        and       signals        from      the         surrounding
environment,"
    (2) "the ability to act upon the world to obtain
selectively what it needs.
and     (3)    "the     basic    felt      need   that        drives    the
organism to act ... to obtain what it needs."7


115. When this situation is reached, it is possible

to assume that the person is dead, even though he or

she, through mechanical stimulation, may be able to

breathe, his or her heart might be able to beat, and

7   Ibid.
                                                                                   11


he   or    she      may     be       able     to        take    some     form       of

nourishment.         It    is        important,          thus,      that     it     be

medically proved that a situation where any human

functioning       would         be    impossible          should       have       been

reached     for     there        to    be     a    declaration         of     brain

death--situations where a person is in a persistent

vegetative state but can support breathing, cardiac

functions, and digestion without any mechanical aid

are necessarily those that will not come within the

ambit of brain death.


116. In    legal     terms,           the    question          of   death     would

naturally assume significance as death has a set of

legal consequences as well. As per the definition in

the American Uniform Definition of Death Act, 1980.

an   individual who             "sustain[s] .             . .       irreversible

cessation      of    all        functions         of     the    entire       brain,

including      the    brain          stem,        is    dead."      This     stage,

thus,     is   reached          at    a     situation          where   not        only

consciousness,            but        every    other        aspect       of        life

regulated      from       the        brain        can    no     longer       be     so

regulated.
                                                                                12




117. In        the     case      of     `euthanasia',          however,        the

situation is slightly different. In these cases, it

is believed, that a determination of when it would

be   right       or       fair   to     disallow      resuscitation        of       a

person who is incapable of expressing his or her

consent to a termination of his or her life depends

on two circumstances:


     a.when           a     person       is      only    kept       alive
          mechanically,                i.e.      when        not        only
          consciousness is lost, but the person is
          only         able        to         sustain     involuntary
          functioning             through        advanced          medical
          technology--such as the use of heart-lung
          machines, medical ventilators etc.
     b.when there is no plausible possibility of
          the person ever being able to come out of
          this       stage.      Medical       "miracles"       are      not
          unknown, but if a person has been at a
          stage       where      his    life     is   only     sustained
          through medical technology, and there has
          been        no    significant         alteration         in    the
          person's condition for a long period of
          time--at least a few years--then there can
          be     a    fair       case    made     out    for       passive
                                                                   12


          euthanasia.


To extend this further, especially when a person is

incapable of being able to give any consent, would

amount to committing judicial murder.



118. In       this    connection     we    may     refer     to   the

Transplantation of Human Organs Act, 1994 enacted by

the Indian Parliament.             Section 2(d) of           the Act

states :

        "brain-stem death" means the stage at which
       all   functions  of   the  brain-stem   have
       permanently and irreversibly ceased and is
       so certified under sub-section (6) of
       section 3:"


119. Section 3(6) of the said Act states:

       "(6)     Where any human organ is to be removed

from the body of a person in the event of his brain-

stem    death,       no   such   removal   shall    be     undertaken

unless such death is certified, in such form and in

such manner and on satisfaction of such conditions

and requirements as may be prescribed, by a Board of

medical        experts      consisting     of    the       following,
                                                            12


namely:-

           (i) the        registered      medical
               practitioner, in charge of the
               hospital in which brain-stem death
               has occurred;

           (ii) an independent registered medical
                practitioner, being a specialist,
                to be nominated by the registered
                medical practitioner specified in
                clause (i), from the panel of names
                approved    by   the    Appropriate
                Authority;

           (iii)   a neurologist or a neurosurgeon
               to be nominated by the registered
               medical practitioner specified in
               clause (i), from the panel of names
               approved    by   the    Appropriate
               Authority; and

           (iv) the registered medical practitioner
                treating the person whose brain-
                stem death has occurred".



120. Although the above Act was only for the purpose

of regulation of transplantation of human organs it

throws some light on the meaning of brain death.



121. From the above angle, it cannot be said that

Aruna Shanbaug is dead.          Even from the report of

Committee of Doctors which we have quoted above it

appears    that   she   has   some   brain   activity,   though
                                                           12


very little.



122. She recognizes that persons are around her and

expresses her like or dislike by making some vocal

sound and waving her hand by certain movements.           She

smiles if she receives her favourite food, fish and

chicken soup.      She breathes normally and does not

require a heart lung machine or intravenous tube for

feeding.     Her pulse rate and respiratory rate and

blood pressure are normal.        She was able to blink

well and could see her doctors who examined her.

When an attempt was made to feed her through mouth

she accepted a spoonful of water, some sugar and

mashed banana.     She also licked the sugar and banana

paste sticking on her upper lips and swallowed it.

She would get disturbed when many people entered her

room, but she appeared to calm down when she was

touched or caressed gently.



123. Aruna Shanbaug meets most of the criteria for

being   in   a   permanent   vegetative   state   which   has

resulted for 37 years.         However, her dementia has
                                                                             12


not progressed                and has remained stable for many

years.



124. From     the       above     examination         by       the   team    of

doctors, it cannot be said that Aruna Shanbaug is

dead.       Whatever the condition of her cortex, her

brain stem is certainly alive.                      She does not need a

heart--lung        machine.            She     breathes         on   her    own

without the help of a respirator.                     She digests food,

and   her    body       performs       other       involuntary       function

without      any    help.            From    the    CD     (which     we    had

screened      in        the    courtroom       on     2.3.2011       in     the

presence of counsels and others) it appears that she

can certainly not be called dead.                             She was making

some sounds, blinking, eating food put in her mouth,

and   even    licking          with   her     tongue      morsels     on    her

mouth.



125. However, there appears little possibility of her

coming    out      of    PVS    in    which    she       is    in.    In    all

probability, she will continue to be in the state in

which she is in till her death.                     The question now is
                                                                           12


whether her life support system (which is done by

feeding    her)     should     be    withdrawn,          and    at    whose

instance?


WITHDRAWAL OF LIFE SUPPORT OF A PATIENT IN PERMANENT
VEGETATIVE STATE (PVS)



126. There is no statutory provision in our country

as   to   the    legal   procedure         for        withdrawing         life

support   to    a   person     in    PVS    or    who     is    otherwise

incompetent to take a decision in this connection.

We   agree      with     Mr.    Andhyarujina             that     passive

euthanasia      should   be    permitted         in    our     country     in

certain situations, and we disagree with the learned

Attorney General that it should never be permitted.

Hence, following the technique used in Vishakha's

case (supra), we are laying down the law in this

connection which will continue to be the law until

Parliament makes a law on the subject.

     (i) A      decision       has     to        be     taken        to

          discontinue life support either by the

          parents or the spouse or other close
                                                        12


relatives, or in the absence of any of

them,    such    a    decision   can    be     taken

even by a person or a body of persons

acting as a next friend.              It can also

be taken by the doctors attending the

patient.        However, the decision should

be taken bona fide in the best interest

of the patient.



       In the present case, we have already

noted that Aruna Shanbaug's parents are dead

and other close relatives are not interested

in her ever since she had the unfortunate

assault on her.        As already noted above, it

is the KEM hospital staff, who have been

amazingly caring for her day and night for

so many long years, who really are her next

friends, and not Ms. Pinky Virani who has

only    visited      her   on   few    occasions       and

written a book on her.          Hence it is for the

KEM hospital staff to take that decision.

The     KEM     hospital    staff       have     clearly
                                                               12


expressed      their    wish       that    Aruna      Shanbaug

should be allowed to live.



       Mr.   Pallav     Shisodia,          learned       senior

counsel,       appearing          for     the      Dean,      KEM

Hospital, Mumbai, submitted that Ms. Pinky

Virani has no locus standi in this case.                       In

our opinion it is not necessary for us to go

into    this    question          since    we   are      of   the

opinion that it is the KEM Hospital staff

who    is    really    the    next        friend    of     Aruna

Shanbaug.



       We do not mean to decry or disparage

what Ms. Pinky Virani has done.                    Rather, we

wish    to   express        our    appreciation          of   the

splendid social spirit she has shown.                          We

have seen on the internet that she has been

espousing many social causes, and we hold

her in high esteem.           All that we wish to say

is that however much her interest in Aruna

Shanbaug       may     be     it     cannot        match      the
                                                         12


    involvement of the KEM hospital staff who

    have been taking care of Aruna day and night

    for 38 years.

         However, assuming that the KEM hospital

    staff at some future time changes its mind,

    in our opinion in such a situation the KEM

    hospital would have to apply to the Bombay

    High Court       for   approval   of    the   decision

    to   withdraw life support.



(ii) Hence, even if a decision is taken by

    the near relatives or doctors or next

    friend to withdraw life support, such a

    decision     requires     approval     from   the

    High Court concerned as laid down in

    Airedale's case (supra).



         In    our    opinion,   this      is   even    more

    necessary in our country as we cannot rule

    out the possibility of mischief being done

    by relatives or others for inheriting the

    property of the patient.
                                                                           12




127. In our opinion, if we leave it solely to the

patient's relatives or to the doctors or next friend

to decide whether to withdraw the life support of an

incompetent person there is always a risk in our

country     that        this     may     be      misused          by      some

unscrupulous       persons       who      wish        to        inherit     or

otherwise    grab        the     property           of     the     patient.

Considering the low ethical levels prevailing in our

society today and the rampant commercialization and

corruption, we cannot rule out the possibility that

unscrupulous       persons        with        the        help     of      some

unscrupulous doctors may fabricate material to show

that   it   is     a    terminal       case    with        no    chance    of

recovery.        There are doctors and doctors.                         While

many doctors are upright, there are others who can

do   anything     for    money    (see    George         Bernard       Shaw's

play `The Doctors Dilemma').                  The commercialization

of our society has crossed all limits.                             Hence we

have to guard against the potential of misuse (see

Robin Cook's novel `Coma').               In our opinion, while

giving great weight to the wishes of the parents,
                                                               13


spouse, or other close relatives or next friend of

the incompetent patient and also giving due weight

to the opinion of the attending doctors, we cannot

leave   it   entirely    to   their   discretion    whether    to

discontinue the life support or not.          We agree with

the decision of the Lord Keith in Airedale's case

(supra) that the approval of the High Court should

be   taken   in   this    connection.      This    is    in   the

interest     of   the     protection     of   the       patient,

protection of the doctors, relative and next friend,

and for reassurance of the patient's family as well

as the public.     This is also in consonance with the

doctrine of parens patriae which is a well known

principle of law.


DOCTRINE OF PARENS PATRIAE


128. The doctrine of Parens Patriae (father of the

country)     had originated in British law as early as

the 13th century.        It implies that the King is the

father of the country and is under obligation to

look after the interest of those who are unable to
                                                       13


look   after   themselves.    The   idea   behind   Parens

Patriae is that if a citizen is in need of someone

who can act as a parent who can make decisions and

take some other action, sometimes the State is best

qualified to take on this role.


129. In the Constitution Bench decision of this Court

in Charan Lal Sahu vs. Union of India (1990) 1 SCC

613 (vide paras 35 and 36), the doctrine has been

explained in some details as follows :

              "In   the   "Words     and   Phrases"
         Permanent Edition, Vol. 33 at page 99,
         it is stated that parens patriae is the
         inherent power and authority of a
         legislature to provide protection to
         the person and property of persons non
         sui juris, such as minor, insane, and
         incompetent persons, but the words
         parens patriae meaning thereby `the
         father of the country', were applied
         originally to the King and are used to
         designate the State referring to its
         sovereign power of guardianship over
         persons    under     disability.    Parens
         patriae   jurisdiction,    it   has   been
         explained,    is   the    right   of   the
         sovereign and imposes a duty on the
         sovereign,    in  public    interest,   to
         protect persons under disability who
         have   no   rightful   protector.      The
         connotation of the term parens patriae
         differs from country to country, for
         instance, in England it is the King, in
                                                                         13


          America it is the people, etc.   The
          government   is within its  duty  to
          protect and to control persons under
          disability".



The   duty   of   the   King    in    feudal      times    to     act    as

parens    patriae   (father      of    the     country)         has   been

taken over in modern times by the State.



130. In   Heller    vs.   DOE    (509)       US   312     Mr.    Justice

Kennedy speaking for the U.S. Supreme Court observed

:
           "the State has a legitimate interest
          under its parens patriae powers in
          providing care to its citizens who are
          unable to care for themselves".



131. In State of Kerala vs. N.M. Thomas, 1976(1) SCR

906 (at page 951) Mr. Justice Mathew observed :
           " The Court also is `state' within the
          meaning   of   Article   12   (of   the
          Constitution).".



132. In our opinion, in the case of an incompetent

person who is unable to take a decision whether to

withdraw life support or not, it is the Court alone,
                                                              13


as parens patriae, which ultimately must take this

decision, though, no doubt, the views of the near

relatives, next friend and doctors must be given due

weight.


UNDER WHICH PROVISION OF THE LAW CAN THE COURT GRANT
APPROVAL   FOR  WITHDRAWING  LIFE   SUPPORT  TO   AN
INCOMPETENT PERSON


133. In   our   opinion,   it   is   the   High   Court     under

Article   226   of   the   Constitution    which     can    grant

approval for withdrawal of life support to such an

incompetent     person.         Article     226(1)     of     the

Constitution states :

          "Notwithstanding anything in article
          32, every High Court shall have power,
          throughout the territories in relation
          to which it exercises jurisdiction, to
          issue to any person or authority,
          including in appropriate cases, any
          Government, within those territories
          directions, orders or writs, including
          writs in the nature of habeas corpus,
          mandamus, prohibition, quo warranto and
          certiorari, or any of them, for the
          enforcement   of  any  of   the  rights
          conferred by Part III and for any other
          purpose".



134. A bare perusal of the above provisions shows
                                                                13


that   the   High    Court   under     Article      226   of   the

Constitution is not only entitled to issue writs,

but is also entitled to issue directions or orders.



135. In   Dwarka    Nath   vs.   ITO   AIR   1966    SC   81(vide

paragraph 4) this Court observed :
          "This     article      is     couched    in
          comprehensive phraseology and it ex
          facie confers a wide power on the High
          Courts to reach injustice wherever it
          is found.     The Constitution designedly
          used a wide language in describing the
          nature of the power, the purpose for
          which and the person or authority
          against whom it can be exercised.        It
          can issue writs in the nature of
          prerogative writs as understood in
          England; but the scope of those writs
          also is widened by the use of the
          expression     "nature",   for    the  said
          expression does not equate the writs
          that can be issued in India with those
          in   England, but only draws an analogy
          from them. That apart, High Courts can
          also issue directions, orders or writs
          other than the prerogative writs.        It
          enables the High Courts to mould the
          reliefs   to    meet   the   peculiar   and
          complicated      requirements     of   this
          country.     Any attempt to equate the
          scope of the power of the High Court
          under Art. 226 of the Constitution with
          that of the English Courts to issue
          prerogative writs is to introduce the
          unnecessary      procedural    restrictions
          grown over the years in a comparatively
          small country like England with a
                                                                      13


            unitary form of Government to a vast
            country like India functioning under a
            federal structure."



136. The above decision has been followed by this

Court in Shri Anadi Mukta Sadguru                     vs. V. R. Rudani

AIR 1989 SC 1607 (vide para 18).


137. No     doubt,    the    ordinary       practice     in    our   High
Courts since the time of framing of the Constitution
in 1950 is that petitions filed under Article 226 of
the   Constitution          pray    for     a    writ    of    the   kind
referred to in the provision.                     However, from the
very language of the Article 226, and as explained
by the above decisions, a petition can also be made
to    the    High     Court        under    Article      226    of   the
Constitution praying for an order or direction, and
ot for any writ.             Hence, in our opinion, Article
226 gives abundant power to the High Court to pass
suitable orders on the application filed by the near
relatives     or     next    friend    or       the   doctors/hospital
staff praying for permission to withdraw the life
support to an incompetent person of the kind above
 
 
PROCEDURE TO BE ADOPTED BY THE HIGH COURT WHEN SUCH
AN APPLICATION IS FILED


138. When     such    an   application        is    filed   the   Chief
Justice     of       the    High      Court        should   forthwith
constitute a Bench of at least two Judges who should
decide to grant approval or not.                    Before doing so
the Bench should seek the opinion of a committee of
three reputed doctors to be nominated by the Bench
after   consulting         such    medical     authorities/medical
practitioners as it may deem fit.                  Preferably one of
the   three      doctors     should    be     a    neurologist,    one
should be a psychiatrist, and the third a physician.
For this purpose a panel of doctors in every city
may be prepared by the High Court in consultation
with the State Government/Union Territory and their
fees for this purpose may be fixed.


139. The committee of three doctors nominated by the
Bench should carefully examine the patient and also
consult the record of the patient as well as taking
 the   views       of    the   hospital      staff     and   submit    its
report to the High Court Bench.


140. Simultaneously with appointing the committee of
doctors,      the      High    Court    Bench    shall      also    issue
notice      to    the      State      and   close     relatives      e.g.
parents,         spouse,      brothers/sisters         etc.    of     the
patient, and in their absence his/her next friend,
and supply a copy of the report of the doctor's
committee to them as soon as it is available.                       After
earing them, the High Court bench should give its
verdict.          The above procedure should be followed
all over India until Parliament makes legislation on
this subject.



141. The High Court should give its decision speedily
at    the   earliest,         since    delay    in    the   matter    may
result      in     causing      great       mental    agony    to    the
relatives and persons close to the patient.


142. The     High       Court      should      give     its   decision
assigning specific reasons in accordance with the
 principle    of    `best    interest       of    the    patient'      laid
down   by    the    House    of    Lords        in    Airedale's      case
(supra).     The    views     of     the     near       relatives      and
committee of doctors should be given due weight by
the High Court before pronouncing a final verdict
which shall not be summary in nature.


143. With    these        observations,          this    petition       is

dismissed.



144. Before parting with the case, we would like to
express     our     gratitude      to      Mr.       Shekhar    Naphade,
learned senior counsel for the petitioner, assisted
by Ms. Shubhangi Tuli, Ms. Divya Jain and Mr. Vimal
Chandra     S.    Dave,    advocates,      the       learned    Attorney
General for India Mr. G. E. Vahanvati, assisted by
Mr.    Chinmoy      P.     Sharma,      advocate,         Mr.    T.    R.
Andhyarujina, learned Senior Counsel, whom we had
appointed as amicus curiae assisted by Mr. Soumik
Ghoshal,     advocate,      Mr.    Pallav        Shishodia,      learned
senior counsel, assisted by Ms. Sunaina Dutta and
Mrs. Suchitra Atul Chitale, advocates for the KEM
Hospital, Mumbai and Mr. Chinmoy Khaldkar, counsel
for the State of Maharashtra, assisted by Mr. Sanjay
V. Kharde and Ms. Asha Gopalan Nair, advocates, who
were of great assistance to us.               We wish to express
our appreciation of Mr. Manav Kapur, Advocate, who
is   Law-Clerk-cum-Research Assistant of   one     of    us
(Katju, J.) as well as Ms. Neha Purohit, Advocate,
who is Law-Clerk-cum-Research Assistant of Hon'ble
Justice Gyan Sudha Mishra.            We also wish to mention
the names of        Mr. Nithyaesh Nataraj and Mr. Vaibhav
Rangarajan, final year law students in the School of
Excellence,        Dr.    B.R.    Ambedkar     Law     University,
Chennai, who were the interns of one of us (Katju,
J.) and who were of great help in doing research in
this case.



145. We wish to commend the team of doctors of Mumbai
who helped us viz. Dr. J. V. Divatia, Professor and
Head, Department of          Anesthesia, Critical Care and
Pain   at   Tata    Memorial      Hospital,    Mumbai;    Dr.    Roop
Gursahani, Consultant Neurologist at P.D. Hinduja,
Mumbai;     and   Dr.    Nilesh    Shah,   Professor     and    Head,
 Department of Psychiatry at Lokmanya Tilak Municipal
Corporation       Medical   College       and      General          Hospital.
They did an excellent job.

146. We also wish to express our appreciation of Ms.
Pinki Virani who filed this petition. Although we
have dismissed the petition for the reasons given
above, we regard her as a public spirited person who
filed     the   petition      for     a    cause        she       bona      fide
regarded as correct and ethical. We hold her in high esteem.


147. We    also     commend     the       entire         staff         of   KEM
Hospital, Mumbai (including the retired staff) for
their noble spirit and outstanding, exemplary and
unprecedented dedication in taking care of Aruna for
so many long years. Every Indian is proud of them.

                                    ...................................J.
                                    (Markandey Katju)


                                    ..................................J.
                                    (Gyan Sudha Misra)
                  14


New Delhi:
March 07, 2011